The Abbasid Dynasty: The Golden Age of Islamic Civilzation

The Abbasid Dynasty: The Golden Age of Islamic Civilzation
The Abasid Caliphate, which ruled the Islamic world, oversaw the golden age of
Islamic culture. The dynasty ruled the Islamic Caliphate from 750 to 1258 AD, making it
one of the longest and most influential Islamic dynasties. For most of its early history, it
was the largest empire in the world, and this meant hat it had contact with distant
neighbors such as the Chinese and Indians in the East, and the Byzantines in the West,
alowing it o adopt and synthesize ideas from these cultures.
The Abasid Revolution
The Abasid Dynasty overthrew the preceding Umayad Dynasty, which was
based in Damascus, Syria. The Umayads had become increasingly unpopular,
especialy in the eastern teritories of the caliphate. The Umayads favored Syrian
Arabs over other Muslims and treated mawali, newly converted Muslims, as second- clas citzens. The most numerous group of mawali were the Persians, who lived side- by-side with Arabs in the east who were angry at he favor shown to Syrian Arabs.
Together, they were ripe for rebelion. Other Muslims were angry with the Umayads
for turning the caliphate into a hereditary dynasty. Some believed that a single family
should not hold power, while Shites believed that rue authority belonged to the family
of the Prophet Muhammad through his son-in-law Ali, and the Umayads were not part
of Muhammad’s family.
Al these various groups who were angry with the Umayads united under the
Abasids, who began a rebelion against he Umayads in Persia. The Abasids built a
coaliton of Persian mawali, Eastern Arabs, and Shites. The Abasids were able to
gain Shite suport because they claimed descent from Muhammad through
Muhammad’s uncle Abas. Their descent from Muhammad was not hrough Ali, as
Shites would have prefered, but Shites stil considered the Abasids beter than the
Umayads. A Persian general, Abu Muslim, who suported Abasid claims to power, led the
Abasid armies. His victories alowed the Abasid leader Abul `Abas al-Safah to
enter the Shite-dominated city of Kufa in 748 and declare himself caliph. In 750, the
army of Abu Muslim and al-Safah faced the Umayad Caliph Marwan I at he Batle of
the Zab near the Tigris River. Marwan I was defeated, fled, and was kiled. As-Safah
captured Damascus and slaughtered the remaining members of the Umayad family
(except for one, Abd al-Rahman, who escaped to Spain and continued the Umayad
Dynasty there). The Abasids were the new rulers of the caliphate.
The Early Abasids
The Abasids had led a revolution against he unpopular policies of the
Umayads, but hose who expected major change were disapointed. Under the
second Abasid Caliph, al-Mansur (r. 754–75), it became clear that much of the
Umayad past would be continued. The Abasids maintained the hereditary control of
the caliphate, forming a new dynasty. The aliance with the Shites was short lived, andSaylor URL: www.saylor.org/hist101 Subunit 9.3.1

the Abasids became champions of Suni orthodoxy, upholding the authority of their
family over that of Ali, and continuing the subjugation of the Shites. Even Abu Muslim,
the briliant Persian general who enginered the rise of the Abasids, was demed a
threat and executed. However, the Abasids did prove loyal to their Persian mawali
alies. In fact, Abasid culture would come to be dominated by the legacy of Persian
civilzation. The Abasid court was heavily influenced by Persian customs, and
members of the powerful Persian Barmakid family acted as the advisers of the caliphs
and rivaled them in wealth and power.
One of the earliest, and most important, changes the Abasids made was to
move the capital of the Islamic empire from the old Umayad power base of Damascus
to a new city—Baghdad. Baghdad was founded in 762 by al-Mansur on the banks of
the Tigris River. The city was round in shape, and designed from the begining to be a
great capital and the center of the Islamic world. It was built not far from the old Persian
capital of Ctesiphon, and its location reveals the desire of the dynasty to conect itself
to Persian culture.
Baghdad grew quickly with encouragement from the Abasid state, and it was
son the largest city in the world. At Baghdad, the Persian culture that he Umayads
had atempted to supres was now alowed to thrive. Art, poetry, and science
flourished. The Abasids learned from the Chinese (alegedly from Chinese soldiers
captured in batle) the art of making paper. Cheap and durable, paper became an
important material for spreading literature and knowledge.
Islamic Golden Age
The fith caliph of the Abasid dynasty, Harun al-Rashid (r. 786–809), is
remembered as one of history’s greatest patrons of the arts and sciences. Under his
rule, Baghdad became the world’s most important center for science, philosophy,
medicine, and education. The masive size of the caliphate meant hat it had contact
and shared borders with many distant empires, so scholars at Baghdad could colect,
translate, and expand upon the knowledge of other civilzations, such as the Egyptians,
Persians, Indians, Chinese, Greks, Romans, and Byzantines. The sucesors of
Harun al-Rashid, especialy his son al-Ma’mun (r. 813–83), continued his policies of
suporting artists, scientists, and scholars. Al-Ma’mun founded the Bayt al-Hikma, the
House of Wisdom, in Baghdad. A library, an instiute for translators, and in many ways
an early form of university, the House of Wisdom hosted Muslim and non-Muslim
scholars who sought o translate and gather the cumulative knowledge of human history
in one place, and in one language—Arabic. At he House of Wisdom, important ideas from around the world came together.
The introduction of Indian numerals, which have become standard in the Islamic and
Western worlds, greatly aided in mathematic and scientifc discovery. Scholars such as
Al-Kindi revolutionized mathematics and synthesized Grek philosophy with Islamic
thought. Al-Biruni and Abu Nasr Mansur—among many other scholars—made
important contributions to geometry and astronomy. Al-Khwarizmi, expanding upon
Grek mathematical concepts, developed Algebra (the word “algorithm” is a coruptionSaylor URL: www.saylor.org/hist101 Subunit 9.3.1

of his name). Ibn al-Haytham made important contributions to the field of optics, and is
generaly held to have developed the concept of the scientifc method.
A number of very practical inovations tok place, especialy in the field of
agriculture. Improved methods of irigation alowed more land to be cultivated, and new
types of mils and turbines were used to reduce the ned for labor (though slavery was
stil very common in both the countryside and cites). Crops and farming techniques
were adopted from far-flung neighboring cultures. Rice, coton, and sugar were taken
from India, citrus fruits from China, and sorghum from Africa. Thanks to Islamic famers,
these crops eventualy made their way to the West. Such Islamic inovation would
continue, even as the Abasid government fel into chaos.
A Long and Slow Decline
Due to several very capable caliphs and their advisers, the Abasid Caliphate
thrived through the early ninth century, despite the major chalenges of ruling a masive
and multiethnic empire. Besides being a great patron of the arts and sciences, Harun
al-Rashid also brought he Abasid Caliphate to its high point. Stil, he had to deal with
revolts in Persia and North Africa, and he removed from power the Persian Barmakid
family, the source of many great advisers (suposedly after the adviser Ja’far
impregnated the caliph’s sister, though probably because al-Rashid feared their power
would eclipse his own). Al-Rashid’s son, Caliph al-Ma’mun not only continued his
father’s patronage by establishing the House of Wisdom, but he made a number of
important independent inovations.
Al-Ma’mun adopted the radical Mu'tazil theology, which was influenced by Grek
philosophy and held that God could be understod through rational inquiry, and that
belief and practice should be subject o reason. He established the mihna, an
inquisiton in which the adherence of scholars and oficials to Mu'tazil theology was
tested, and they could be imprisoned or even kiled if they did not folow the theology.
As a result, al-Ma’mun’s reign saw a growing division betwen the Isalmic sovereign
and the Isalmic people. This division was exacerbated by his creation of an army of
Central Asian soldiers loyal only to him. During al-Ma’mun’s reign, the provincial
governors, caled emirs, became increasingly independent. The governor of Persia set
up his own dynasty and ruled as a king, though he continued to recognize the Abasid
caliph. This trend of impendent governors would continue, causing major problems for
the caliphate.
After the caliphate of al-Ma’mun, Abasid power began to noticeably decline. The cost of runing a masive empire and maintaining a large bureaucracy required
steady revenues, and as the authority of the caliphate diminished it was able to colect
fewer taxes. In order to stabilze the state finances, the caliphs granted tax-farms to
governors and miltary commanders. These governors, with their own trops and
revenue bases, son proved independent-minded and disloyal.
The caliph al-Mu`tasim (r. 83–842) furthered the gap betwen the caliph and his
people. Expanding on al-Ma’mun’s new army, he created his own miltary force of slave
soldiers caled ghilman (later know as “Mamluks”). As the elite guard of the caliph,
these slaves began acting superior to the people of Baghdad, which inspired anger andSaylor URL: www.saylor.org/hist101 Subunit 9.3.1

led to riots. Instead of trying to difuse the situation, al-Mu’tasim simply moved the
capital away from Baghdad and setled in Samara, 60 miles to the north. Away from
the bulk of their subjects who lived in Baghdad, the caliphs became insulated from the
problems of their empire.
Increasingly, the caliph’s soldiers controled Samaria, turning the caliph into litle
more than a pupet. When a caliph was not pliant, they simply kiled him. Al-Muwafaq,
the brother of caliph al-Mu`tamid (r. 870–892), tried to change this. Acting as his
brother’s regent, he had the caliph move the capital back to Baghdad, and from there al- Muwafaq guided the caliphate to new prosperity and defeated the Zanj Rebelion, an
uprising of African slaves that posed a major threat o the caliphate. Thanks to al- Muwafaq, Abasid power gained a new lease on life. However, decline began anew under the reign of al-Muqtadir (r. 908–932), who
was raised to the throne at he age of thirten by members of the court who knew they
could control him. For al-Muqtadir’s long, twenty-five-year reign, he was to weak to do
anything but act as a tol of various court factions. Under his caliphate, teritory after
teritory broke fre of Abasid rule. By the end, Abasid authority extended hardly
beyond Baghdad. Al-Muqtadir was eventualy kiled by city guards after he bankrupted
the state to the point where he could not even pay their salaries. Al-Muqtadir’s son, al-Radi (r. 934–940) is often considered the last caliph to
exercise any real authority. He tried to raise a powerful governor of Iraq who would hold
power over al the other independent emirs. Thus, al-Radi created the tile amir al- umara, “emir of emirs,” for the governor of Iraq. This plan backfired, however, because
the tile efectively invested supreme authority in its holder, leaving the caliph simply as
a figurehead. The Shite Buyids son tok the tile and held it as a hereditary positon, becoming the de facto rulers of Iraq. From this point on, the Abasid caliphs became litle more than religious
figureheads. In the mid-1th century, the Buyids were ousted by the Suni Seljuq
Turks, who conquered Iran, Iraq, Syria, and most of Asia Minor, forming a new and
vibrant Islamic Empire. The Seljuqs continued to ke p the Abasid caliph as the tiular
ruler while exercising true authority over the empire as sultans. The End of the Abasids
When the Seljuq sultanate colapsed in the twelfth century, an oportunity
presented itself or Caliph al-Nasir (r. 180–125) to atempt o restore Abasid power
in Iraq. His long reign of orty-seven years alowed him ample time to reconquer
Mesopotamia and further develop Baghdad as a center of learning. His chief rival was
the Sultanate of Khwarezm, which ruled Persia. Suposedly, al-Nasir apealed to the
Mongols, an expanding central-Asian nomad empire, for help against Khwarezm. Under al-Nasir’s les competent sucesors, this backfired disastrously. The Mongols
completely overan Khwarezm and then turned their atention to Baghdad. The Mongols sem to have wanted to rule, as the Buyids and Seljuqs before
them, by holding real miltary power but alowing the Abasid caliph symbolic authority. Caliph al-Mu`tasim (r. 1242–1258), however, refused to acknowledge their authority and
ofered these non-Muslims only insults and threats. Faced with Mongol invasion, he didSaylor URL: www.saylor.org/hist101 Subunit 9.3.1

litle to prepare, and the Mongol hordes son surounded Baghdad. They captured the
city in 1258 and sacked it. They trampled the caliph to death, and completely destroyed
the city. They kiled somewhere betwen 10,00 and a milion people, destroyed al
the boks of the House of Wisdom and other libraries, burned down al the great
monuments of the city, and left Baghdad a smoldering ruin. This marks the end of the
Abasid caliphate of Baghdad, and the abrupt end of the Islamic golden age. The Abasid line was restablished in 1261, in Egypt. The sultans of Egypt
apointed an Abasid caliph in Cairo, but hese Egyptian caliphs were even more
symbolic than the late caliphs had ben in Baghdad, and were simply used to legitmize
the power of the sultans. The authority of these caliphs extended strictly to religious
maters. Stil, the Egypt-based period of the Abasid dynasty lasted over 250 years.
In 1517, the Otoman Empire conquered Egypt. The last Abasid caliph, al- Mutawakil I, was forced to surender al his authority to the Otoman Sultan Selim I. This was the end of seven-and-a-half centuries of Abasid history. However, under the
Otoman rulers the caliphate was once again weded to a powerful Islamic Empire,
which exercised true authority in the Muslim world.
 Summary:  The Abasids came to power in a rebelion against he Umayads. Though they
built a coaliton of various forces unhapy with the Umayads, once the Abasids
were in power they continued many Umayad policies.  One thing that distinguished the Abasids from the Umayads was their embrace
of Persian culture. They moved the capital to a new city, Baghdad, close to the
old Persian capital.  Under the Abasids, Baghdad became the largest and most cultured city in the
world. Caliph Harun al-Rashid sponsored art, literature, and science there, and
his son al-Ma’mun created the House of Wisdom, where knowledge from around
the world was translated into Arabic.  Thanks to these policies, the Abasids oversaw an Islamic golden age in which
the learning of many civilzations was preserved and expanded upon.  Slowly, Abasid power weakened in the face of independent governors, caled
emirs, and a miltary that controled the caliphs.  By the time of Caliph al-Radi (r. 934–940), Abasid power was mostly limited to
Baghdad. Al-Radi created the tile of Emir of Emirs to check the power of the
various independent emirs, but his only diminished the authority of the caliph
and alowed the Emir of Emirs to become the true ruler of the caliphate.  The Abasids became litle more than figureheads, until the reign of caliph al- Nasir (r. 180–125), who reaserted power. But alas, his sucesors were not
as sucesful, and the Abasid Empire was wiped out by the Mongols, who
sacked Baghdad.Saylor URL: www.saylor.org/hist101 Subunit 9.3.1
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 After this, the Abasid caliphs continued to rule from Cairo as religious
figureheads. The Abasid line of caliphs ended when Egypt was conquered by
the Otomans, and the caliphate was claimed by the Otoman sultan.