We must Tribute to Muslim Scientists in the“Introduction to the History of Science,”
”It will suffice here to evoke a few glorious nameswithout contemporary equivalents in the West: Jabir
ibn Haiyan, al-Kindi, al-Khwarizmi, al-Fargani, al-Razi, Thabit ibn Qurra, al-Battani, Hunain ibn
Ishaq, al-Farabi, Ibrahim ibn Sinan, al-Masudi, al-Tabari, Abul Wafa, ‘Ali ibn Abbas, Abul Qasim, Ibn
al-Jazzar, al-Biruni, Ibn Sina, Ibn Yunus, al-Kashi, Ibn al-Haitham, ‘Ali Ibn ‘Isa al-Ghazali, al-zarqab,
Omar Khayyam. A magnificent array of names which itwould not be difficult to extend. If anyone tells
you that the Middle Ages were scientifically sterile, just quote these men to him, all of whom flourished
within a short period, 750 to 1100 A.D.”
Preface
On 8 June, A.D. 632, the Prophet Mohammed (Peace and Prayers be upon Him) died, havingaccomplished the marvelous task of uniting the tribes of Arabia into a homogeneous and powerful
nation.
In the interval, Persia, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, the whole North Africa, Gibraltar and Spain had been submitted to the Islamic State, and a new civilization had been established.
The Arabs quickly assimilated the culture and knowledge of the peoples they ruled, while the latter in
turn - Persians, Syrians, Copts, Berbers, and others - adopted the Arabic language. The nationality ofthe Muslim thus became submerged, and the term Arab acquired a linguistic sense rather than a strictly ethnological one.
As soon as Islamic state had been established, the Arabs began to encourage learning of all kinds.
Schools, colleges, libraries, observatories and hospitals were built throughout the whole Islamic state,
and were adequately staffed and endowed.
In the same time, scholars were invited to Damascus and Baghdad without distinction of nationality or creed. Greek manuscripts were acquired in large numbers and were studied, translated and provided with scholarly and illuminating commentaries.
The old learning was thus infused with a new vigor,and the intellectual freedom of men of the desert
stimulated the search for knowledge and science.
In early days at least, the Muslims were eager seekers for knowledge, and Baghdad was the intellectual center of the world.
Historians have justly remarked that the school of Baghdad was characterized by a new scientific spirit.
Proceeding from the known to the unknown; taking precise account of phenomena; accepting nothing as true which was not confirmed by experience, or established by experiment, such were fundamental
principles taught and acclaimed by the masters of the sciences.
2
The Islamic Empire At Its Greatest Extent 750 c
George Sarton in his introduction, marks the time from the 2ndhalf of eighth century to the 2 nd half of the eleventh century into:
• The time of Jabir Ibn Haiyan which covers the 2 nd half of eighth century
• The time of Al-Khwarizmi which covers the 1st half of ninth century
• The time of Al-Razi which covers the 2nd half of ninth century
• The time of Al-Mas’udi which covers the 1st half of tenth century
• The time of Abu-l-Wafa which covers the 2nd half of tenth century
• The time of Al-Biruni which covers the 1st half eleventh century
• The time of Omar Khyyam which covers the 2 nd half of eleventh century
3
The Time of Jabir Ibn Haiyan Second half of Eighth Century
The intellectual relaxation which characterized thesecond half of the seventh century and the first half of the eighth was followed by a period of renewed activity which was entirely due to Muslim initiatives, that is why this period gave an Arabic name markingthe beginning of Muslim science. The name Jabir Ibn Haiyan came from the highly important contributions by him in this period. Jabir’s texts, whether in Arabic or Latin, are one of the most urgent and promising tasks of scholarship. He will remain a very impressive personality.
Imaginative portrait of Jabir Ibn Haiyan
Cultural Background of this Period in the East
Two rulers of the Abbasid caliphs used their authority to promote the intellectual welfare and progress
of the peoples, and distinguished themselves greatly in this respect; the second, al-Mansur (founded
Baghdad) and the fifth, Harun-al-Rashid (whose famehas been immortalized by many legends). Both
caliphs encourage the work of translators who were busily unlocking the treasures of Greek knowledge.
Abu Ja’far ‘Abdallah al-Mansur, i.e. the victorious. Died in 775 at Bir Maimun, near Mecca, at the
age of 63 - 68 Muslim years (Hegra), i.e. 61-66 Christian years. He was the second ‘Abbasid caliph and ruled from 754 to his death.
He was a great statesman and the founder of Baghdad. Memorable because of the many translations
from the Syriac, Persian, Greek, and Hindu languages into the Arabic which were accomplished in his reign.
Harun al-Rashid, born in 763 or 766 at al-Ray; died at Tus in 809.Caliph from 786 to his death; the
fifth and one of the greatest ‘Abbasid monarchs. Magnificent patron of science, art, and literature. Many more Greek works were translated by his order. In 807 he presented a very remarkable water-clock to Charlemange (King of the Franks since 768; crowned Emperor of the West on Christmas 800 by Leo III in Rome)
4
Islamic Mathematics and Astronomy
All of the mathematical and astronomical work of this period was done by Muslims. It is interesting to recall that the mathematical work of the previous period had been done almost exclusively by Chinese.Some amount of stimulation had come from India. In addition to transmission of some Hindu
mathematics.
Ibrahim al-Fazari is said to have been the first Muslim to construct astrolabes.
Ya’qub ibn Tariq and Muhammad, son of Ibrahim al-Fazari, are the first to be mentioned in
connection with Hindu mathematics: Ya’qab met at the court of al-Mansur, a Hindu astronomer called Kankah (?), who acquainted him with the Siddhanta, and Muhammad was ordered to translate it. The physician al-Batriq translated Ptolemy’s Quadripartitum. Two astrologers, one of them a Jew named
Mashallah, the other a Persian called al-Naubakht, worked together to make the measurements necessary for the building of Bagdad. Al-Naubakht’s son, al-Fadl, wrote astrological treatises and translations from the Persian into Arabic.
Ibrahim al-Fazari
Abu Ishaq Ibrahlm ibn Habib ibn Sulaiman ibn Samuraibn Jundab. Died c. 777.
Muslim astronomer. The first to construct astrolabes, he wa the author of a poem (qasida) on astrology
and of various astronomical writings (on the astrolabe, on the armillary spheres, on the calendar). H.
Suter: Die Mathematiker und Astronomer der Araber(3, 208, 1900)
Ya’qub Ibn Tariq
Probably of Persian origin, flourished in Baghdad, c.767-778 died c. 796. One of the greatest
astronomers of his time. He probably met, c. 767, at the court of al-Mansur, the Hindu Kankah (or
Mankah?), who had brought there the Siddhanta. He wrote memoirs on the sphere (c. 777), on the
division of the kardaja; on the tables derived fromthe Siddhanta. H. Suter: Die Mathematiker und
Astronomer der Araber(p. 4, 1900)
Muhammad Ibn Ibrahim Al-Fazari
Abu ‘Abdallah Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Fazari. Son of the astronomer Ibrahim dealt with above, for whom he is sometimes mistaken (he may be the authorof the astrological poem ascribed to his father).
Died c. 796 to 806. Muslim scientist and astronomer. He was ordered by the Caliph al-Mansur in 772/3 to translate the Sanskrit astronomical work Siddhanta. This translation was possibly the vehicle by means of which the Hindu numerals were transmitted from India to Islam.
H. Suter: Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber(p. 4,1900).
Cantor: Geschichte der Mathematik(I, 3rded., 698, 1907).
D. E. Smith and L. C. Karpinski: The Hindu-Arabic Numerals(p.92, Boston, 1911)
Mashallah
His real name was probably Manasseh (in Arabic, Misha). Latin translators named him Messahala (with many variants, as Macellama, Macelarma). Mashallah is a contraction of ma’aha Allah meaning “What wonders Allah has willed.” (What hath God wrought.)Flourished under al-Mansur, died c. 815 or 820.
One of the earliest astronomers and astrologers in Islam, himself an Egyptian (?) Jew. Only one of his
writings is extant in Arabic, but there are many mediaeval Latin and Hebrew translations. The Arabic text extant deals with the prices of wares and is the earliest book of its kind in that language.
5
He took part with the Persian astrologer al-Naubakht in thesurveying preliminary to the foundation of Baghdad
in 762-63. His most popular book in the Middle Ageswas the ‘De scientia motus orbis’, translated by
Gherardo Cremonese.
Text and Translation. The De scientia motus orbisis probably the treatise called in Arabic “the twentyseventh;” printed in Nuremberg 1501, 1549. The second edition is entitled: ‘De elementis et orbibus
coelestibus’, and contains 27 chapters. The De compositione et utilitate astrolabii was included in
Gregor Reisch: Margarita phylosophica(ed. pr., Freiburg, 1503; Suter says the text is included in the
Basel edition of 1583). Other astronomical and astrological writings are quoted by Suter and
Steinsehneider.
An Irish astronomical tract based in part on a mediaeval Latin version of a world by Messahalah. Edited
with preface, translation, and glossary, by Afaula Power (Irish Texts Society, vol. 14, 194 p., 1914. A
relatively modern translation of the De scientia motus orbis, the preface is uncritical).
Astrolabe Astronomers Using Astrolabe
6
Islamic Alchemy
It is noteworthy that the earliest alchemical textsin Arabic and Latin are contemporaneous, that is, if our dating of them is correct. The most famous alchemist of Islam, Jabir Ibn Haiyan, seems to have had a good experimental knowledge of a number chemical facts; he was also an able theoretician.Jabir ibn Haiyan
Abu Musa Jabir ibn Haiyan al-Azdi (al-Tusi, al-Tartusi; al-Harrani meaning that he was a Sabian?; alSufi). Flourished mostly in Kufa, c. 776, he was the most famous Arabic alchemist; the alchemist Geber of the Middle Ages. He may be the author of a book on the astrolabe, but his fame rests on his
alchemical writings preserved in Arabic: the “Book of the Kingdom,” the “Little Book of the Balances,”
the “Book of Mercy,” the “Book of Concentration,” the “Book of Eastern Mercury,” and others.
According to the treatises already translated (by Berthelot), his alchemical doctrines were very
anthropomorphic and animistic. But other treatises (not yet available in translation) show him in a better
light. We find in them remarkably sound views on methods of chemical research; a theory on the
geological formation of metals; the so-called sulphur-mercury theory of metals (the six metals differ
essentially because of different proportions of sulphur and mercury in them); preparation of various
substances (e.g. basic lead carbonate; arsenic and antimony from their sulphides).
Jabir also deals with various applications, e.g. refinement of metals, preparation of steel, dyeing ofcloth
and leather, varnishes to water-proof cloth and protect iron, use of manganese dioxide in glass making,
use of iron pyrites for writing in gold, distillation of vinegar to concentrate acetic acid. He observed the imponderability of magnetic force.
It is possible that some of the facts mentioned in the Latin works, ascribed to Geber and dating from the twelfth century and later, must also be placed to Jabir’s credit. It is impossible to reach definite
conclusions until all the Arabic writings ascribed to Jabir have been properly edited and discussed. It is only then that we shall be able to measure the fullextent of his contributions, but even on the slender
basis of our present knowledge, Jabir appears already as a very great personality, one of the greatestin mediaeval science.
Text and Translations:- M. Berthelot: La chimie au moyen age (vol. 3, L’alchimie arabe, Paris,1893. The
Arabic text of a few of Jabir’s writings is edited by Octave Houdas. French translation, p. 126-224. See
E. J. Holmyard’s criticism in Isis, XI, 479-499, 1924). Ernst Darmstaedter: Die Alchemie des Geber
(212 p., 10 pl.; Berlin, 1922. German translation of the Latin treatises ascribed to Geber; reviewed by J. Ruska in Isis, V, 451-455, concluding that these Latin treatisesare apocryphal); Liber misericordiae
Geber. Eine lateinisehe ubersetzung des grosseren Kitab al-rahma (Archive fur Geschichte der Medizin,
vol. 17, 181-197, 1925; Isis, VIII, 737).
7
Page of one of Jabir’s Chemical Works in Arabic
Figures of some Alchemical Processes in
ArabicManuscript
8
An illustration from an Arabic Manuscript in the British Museum
Portrait of Gaber Ibn Haiyan by an Egyptian artist
9
The Time of Al-Khwarizmi
“First Half of Ninth Century”
The ninth century was essentially a Muslim century.To be sure, intellectual work did not cease in other centuries; but the activity of the Muslim scholars and men of science was overwhelmingly superior.
They were the real standard-bearers of civilizationin those days. Their activity was superior in almost every respect. To consider only the first half of the century, the leading men of science, al-Kindi, the
sons of Musa, Al-Khwarzmi, al-Farghani, were all Muslims; Ibn Masawaih, it is true, was a christian,
but he wrote in Arabic.
Cultural Background
The seventh Abbasid caliph, al-Ma’mun (813-833), was even a greater patron of letters and science than
Harun al-Rashid. He founded a scientific academy inBagdad, tried to collect as many Greek
manuscripts as possible, and ordered their translation; he encouraged scholars from all kinds, and an
enormous amount of scientific work was done under his patronage.
Al-Ma’mun
’Abdallah al-Ma’mun. Born in Baghdad in 786, died near Tarsus in 833. The seventh and greatest
‘Abbasid caliph (813-833). His mother and wife werePersians, which explains his Persian and ‘Alid
proclivities. He was an ardent Mu’tazil, who tried to enforce his views by means of violence. He wrote four long letters to explain the Qur’an was created, and he cruelly punished those who dared entertain different views (e.g., Ibn Hannibal). He thus combined in a remarkable way free thought and intolerance. While persecuting those who objected to Mu’tazilism, Jews and Christians were very welcome at his court.
Al-Ma’munwas even a greater patron of letters and science than Harun al-Rashid. He took
considerable pains to obtain Greek manuscripts and even sent a mission to the Byzantine Emperor Leon
the Armenian (8l3 to 890) for that purpose. He ordered the translation of these manuscripts. He
organized at Baghdad a sort of scientific academy called the House of Wisdom (Bayt al-hilkma), which
included a library and an observatory. This was themost ambitious undertaking of its kind since the
foundation of the Alexandrian Museum (q. v. first half of third century B. C.).
Al-Ma’mun built another observatory on the plain of Tadmor(Palmyra). The inclination of the ecliptic
was found by his astronomers to equal 23o 33’ and tables of the planetary motions were constructed. He ordered two degree-measurements to be made to determine the size of the earth one of them near
Tadmor (a degree = 6,500 miles) hence circumferenceof the earth = 20,400 miles; diameter=6,500
miles). A large map of the world was drawn for him. He encouraged philosophers, philologists,
traditionalists, and other jurists mathematicians, physicians, astrologers and alchemists.
Fihrist (116, 24.3 and passim). Gustav Weil: Gesehichte (ler Chalifen (vol.2 198-994). J. T. Remaud:
Geographie d’Aboulfeda (vol. 1, 269 sq. 1848). J. L. E. Dreyer: History of the Planetary System from Thales to Kepler (p. 245, 249 278 Cambridge, 1906) R. A. Nicholson: Literary History of the Arabs
(359 1907).
10
An Encyclopedic Scientist.... Al-Kindi
Abu Ysuf Ya’qub ibn Ishaq ibn al-Sabbah al-Kindi (i. e., of the tribe of Kinda) Latin name,
Alkindus.
Born in Basra at the beginning of the ninth century, flourished in Baghdad under al-Ma’mun and alMu’tasim (8l3 to 849), persecuted during the orthodox reaction led by al-Mutawakkil (841 to 861); died c. 873. “The philosopher of the Arabs;” so-called probably because he was the first and only great philosopher of the Arab race. His knowledge of Greek science and philosophy was considerable.
He made a deep study of Aristotle from Neoplatonic point of view. Relatively few of his numerous
works (270?) are extant. They deal with mathematics, astrology , physics, music, medicine, pharmacy, and geography.
Al-Kindi wrote four books on the use of the Hindu numerals. Many translations from the Greek into
Arabic were made or revised by him or under his direction. He considered a1chemy as an imposture.
Two of his writings are especially important: “De aspectibus,” a treatise on geometrical and
physiological optics (largely based on Euclid, Heron, Ptolemy; no dioptrics), which influenced Roger Bacon, Witelo, etc.; “De medicinarum compositarum gradibus,” an extraordinary attempt to establish posology on a mathematical basis. He is the earliest Muslim .writer on music whose works have come
down to us; they contain a notation for the determination of pitch. Many writings of his were translated
into Latin by Gherardo da Cremona. His influence was long felt and Cardano considered him as one of
the twelve greatest minds.
Text and Translation - The De medicinarum compositarum gradibus investigandis libellus was published
in Strassburg (1531) Die philosophischen Abhandlungen des al-Kindi. Zum ersten Male hrg . von
Albino Nagy (Beitr. zur Gesch. d. Philos. des Mittelalters, II, 5, 118 p., Munster, 1897.
11
Islamic Mathematics and Astronomy
A very large amount of mathematical and astronomical work was done during third period. chiefly by Muslims. It is practically impossible to separate mathematics from astronomy, for almost everymathematician was an astronomer or an astrologer, or both. Some of the most important steps forward
were made in the field of trigonometry in the course of computing astronomical tables. Thus it is better to consider mathematicians and astronomers at one and the same time, but they are so numerous that
G.Sarton have divided them into five groups, as follows: the geometers, the arithmeticians and
algebraists, the translators of the “Almagest,” theastronomers and trigonometricians, the astrologers. It is hardly necessary to say that these groups are not exclusive, but overlap in various ways.
GeometersAl-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf was the first translator of Euclid’s “Elements ‘into Arabic . Al-‘Abbas wrote commentaries upon them . Abu Sa’id al-Darir wrote a treatise on geometrical problems. Two of the Banu Musa, Muhammad and Hasan, were especially interested in geometry; the third, Ahmad, was a student of mechanics. Books on the measurement of the sphere, the trisection of the angle, and the determination of two mean proportionals between twogiven quantities are ascribed to them. They
discovered kinematical methods of trisecting anglesand of drawing ellipses.
Arithmeticians and AlgebraistsThe Jewish astrologer Sahl ibn Bishr wrote a treatise on algebra. The
greatest mathematician of the time, and, if one takes all circumstances into account, one of the greatest
of the times was al-Khwarazmi. He combined the results obtained by the Greeks and the Hindus and
thus transmitted a body of arithmetical and algebraic knowledge which exerted a deep influence upon
mediaeval mathematics. His works were perhaps the main channel through which the Hindu numerals
became known in the west. The philosopher al-Kind1 wrote various mathematical treatises, including
four books on the use of Hindu numerals. This may have been another source of Western knowledge on
the subject. In any ease, the Arabic transmission eclipsed the Hindu origin, and these numerals were
finally known in the West as Arabic numerals.
Translators of the “Almagest” The earliest translator of the “Almagest” into Arabic was the Jew Sahl
al-Tabari. Another translation was made a little later (in 829), on the basis of a Syriae version, by alHajjaj ibn Yusuf.
Astronomers and Trigonometricians Ahmad al-Nahawandi made astronomical observations at
Jundishapur and compiled tables. The Caliph al-Ma’mun built an observatory in Baghdad and another in
the plain of Tadmor. His patronage stimulated astronomical observations of every kind. Tables of
planetary motions were compiled, the obliquity of the ecliptic determined, and geodetic measurements
carefully made.
Al-Khwarizmi was one of the first to compute astronomical and trigonometrical tables. Habash al-Hasib
seems to have been one of the greatest astronomers working for al-Ma’mun. He edited three
astronomical tables, seems to have been the first to determine the time by an altitude, and introducedthe
notion of shadow (umbra versa) corresponding to ourtangent.
He compiled a table of tangents, probably the earliest of its kind. Sanad ibn ‘Ali was the chief of alMa’mun’s astronomers. Astronomical tables were compiled by him and by Yahya ibn abi Mansur, it is probable that those tables (and those of Habash already quoted) were due to the cooperative efforts ofmany astronorners. Observations were made by the geometers al-‘Abbas, ‘Ali ibn ‘Isa al-Asturlabi,
12
Yahya ibn abi Mansur, al-Marwarrudhi, and al-Khwarizmi; also the observations made by al-Dinawari in 845-50 in Ispahan.
The geometer Abu Sa’id al Darir wrote a treatise onthe drawing of the meridian.
’Al. ibn ‘Isa al-Asturlabi was a famous maker of instruments; he wrote 3 treatise on the astrolabe. But by
far the most notable of that distinguished company was al-Fargham (Alfraganus). He was apparently the first Muslim to write a : comprehensive treatise onastronomy. That treatise was very popular until the fifteenth century; it influenced not only the Muslim, but also, through Latin and Hebrew translations,the
Christian and Jewish astronomers.
Astrologers It is safe to assume that every astronomer was also, incidentally an astrologer. There are a
few popular men, throughout the Middle Ages, who were chiefly if not exclusively concerned with
astrology, they contributed powerfully to its debasement, The main astrologers of this period were
‘Umar ibn al-Farrukhan and his son Muhammad Abu Ma’shar (Albumasar), Sahl ibn Bishr, and Abu
‘Ali al-Khaiyat.
Muslim Mathematicans and Astronomers
Al-Hajjaj ihn Yusuf
Al-Hajjaj ihn Yusuf ibn Matar. Flourished some timebetween 786 and 833. probably in Baghdad. The
first translator of Eucelid’s “Elements” into Arabic and one ef the first translators of the “Almagest.”
kitab al-mijisti, hence our word almagest). Al-Hajjaj’s translation of the Almagest was made in 829-8.90
on the basis of a Syriac version (by Sergios of Resaina” (first half of sixth century). A later adaptation
of the Almagest was made by Abu-l-Wafa’ (second half of tenth century) .
He twice translated the “Elements” of Euclid, firstunder Harun al-Rashid then again under al-Ma’mun.
Al-‘Abbas ibn Sa’id
al-‘Abbas ibn Sa’id al-Jauhari. Flourished under al-Ma mun. Muslim mathematician and astronomer.
He took part in the astronomical observations organized at Baghdad in 829.30 and at Damaseus in 832-833. He wrote commentaries on Euclid’s Elements.
H. Suter: :Mathematiker (12, 1900)
Abu Sa’id al-Darir
Abu Sa’id al-Darir al-Jurajani. who died in 845/6; thus he flourished in the first half of the ninth
century. Muslim astronomer and mathematician. He wrote a treatise on geometrical problems and
another on the drawing of the meridian.
H. Suter: :Mathematiker (12, 1900).
13
Al.-Khwarizmi
Abu ‘Abdallah Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi. The last-mentioned name (his nisba) refers to his
birthplace, Khwarizm, modern Khiva, south of the Aral Sea. It is under that name that he was best
known, as is witnessed by the words algorism and augrim (Chaucer) derived from it. Flourished under al-Ma’mun, caliph from 813 to 833, died c. 850.
Al-Khwarizmi was a Muslim mathematician, astronomer, geographer one of the greatest scientists of his
faith and the greatest of his time. He syneretized Greek and Hindu knowledge and influenced
mathematical thought to a greater extent than any other mediaeval writer. His arithmetic (lost in Arabic;
Latin translation of the twelfth century extant) made known to the Arabs and Europeans the Hindu
system of numeration. His algebra, Hisab al-jabr wal-muqabala, is equally important. It contains
analytical solutions of linear and quadratic equations and its author may be called one of the founders of
analysis or algebra as distinct from geometry.
Al-Khwarizmi also gives geometrical solutions (withfigures) of quadratic equations, for ex.
, X2 + 1OX = 39, an equation often repeated by later writers.The Liber ysagogarum Alchorismi in artem astronomicam a magistro A. [Adelard of Bath ?] compositus!’ deals with arithmetic, geometry. music,
and astronomy; it is possibly a summary of al-Khwarzmi’s teachings rather than an original work. His
astronomical and trigonometric tables, revised by Maslama al-Majrti (Second half of tenth century),
were translated into Latin as early as l126 by Adelard of Bath. They were the first Muslim tables and
contained not simply the sine function but also thetangent (Maslama’s interpolation). Al-Khwarizmui
probably collaborated in the degree measurements ordered by al-Ma’nun. He improved Ptolemy’s
geography, both the text and the maps (Surat al-ard, “The Face of the Earth”).
General Studies Fihrist (p. 274 and comm.). H. Suter: Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber
(l0, 1900); Nachtrage (158-160, 1902). L. C. Karpinski’s edition of the Algebra (1915.)
Sahl Al-Tabari
Also called Rabban al-Tabari, meaning the Rabbi of Tabaristan. Flourished about the beginning of the
ninth century. Jewish astronomer and physician. The first translator of the Almagest into Arabic.
H. Suter: Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber (l0, 1900); M. Steinschneider: Die arabische
Literatur der Juden (23-34, Frankfurt, 1902).
Ahmed Al-Nahawandi
Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Nahawandi. Flourished at Jundishapur at the time of Yahva ibn Khalid ibn
Barmak, who died in 802-3; he himself died c. 835 to 845. Muslim astronomer. He made astronomical
observations at Jundishapur and compiled tables called the comprehensive (Mushtamil).
H. Suter: Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber (l0, 1900)
14
Habash Al-Hasib
Ahmad ibn ‘Abdallah al-Marwazi (i. e., from Merv) Habash al-Hasib (the calculator). Flourished in
Baghdad; died a centenarian between 864 and 874. Astronomer under al-Ma’mun and al-Mu’tasim. (He observed from 825 to 835) He compiled three astronomical tables: the first were still in the Hindu
manner; the second, called the ‘tested” tables, were the most important; they are likely identical with the
“Ma’munic” or “Arabic” tables and may be a collective work of al-Ma’mun’s astronomers; the third,
called tables of the Shah, were smaller. Apropos ofthe solar eclipse of 829, Habash gives us the first
instance of a determination of time by an altitude (in this case, of the sun); a method which was
generally adopted by Muslim astronomers. He seems to have introduced the notion of “shadow,” umbra (versa), equivalent to our tangent, and he compileda table of such shadow which seems to be the earliest
of its kind.
Islamic Alchemy, Physics, and Technology
The astronomer Sanad ibn ‘Aliis said to have made investigations on specific gravity. Al-Kindi wrote a
treatise on geometrical and physiological optics; he criticized alchemy. His writings on music are the
earliest of their kind extant in Arabic; they contain a notation for the determination of pitch. Amongthe
works ascribed to the Banu Musa, is one on the balance.
Islamic Geography, and Geology
Al-Ma’mun ordered geodetic measurements, to determine the size of the earth, and the drawing of a
large map of the world. The mathematician al-Khwarizmi wrote a geographical treatise, entitled the Face
of the Earth, which was essentially revised edition of Ptolemy’s geography; it included maps. Sulaiman
the Merchant traveled to the coast-lands of the Indian Ocean and to China; an account of his journeys
was published in 851.
Some idea of Muslim views on minerals may be obtained in the so called “Lapidary” of Aristotle. That
compilation is probably of Syriac and Persian origin, and one may tentatively place the Arabic version
in the first half of the ninth century. ‘Utarid’s lapidary, the earliest work of its kind in Arabic, dates
probably from the same time.
15
Large map of the world
(which Al-Ma’mun ordered to be drawn)
Arabic Medicine
There is nothing to report in this time on either Latin or Chinese medicine, and that my account of
Byzantine medicine is restricted to a reference to Leon of Thessalonica. Practically all the medical work
of this period was due either to Japanese or to Arabic-speaking physicians. To consider the latter first, I
said advisedly “Arabic speaking” and not “Muslim,” because out of the eight physicians whom G.
Sarton mentioned as the most important, six were Christians, most probably Nistorians. Of the two
remaining, one was a true Arab, the other a Persian. A great part of the activity of these men was
devoted to translating Greek medical texts, especially those of Hippocrates and Galen, into Syriac and
into Arabic. All of these translators were Christians, the most prominent being Ya’hya ibn Batriq, Ibn
Sahda, Salmawaih ibn Bunan, Ibn Masawaih, and Ayyubal-Ruhawi.
Jibril ibn Bakhtyashu’ collected Greek manuscripts and patronized the translators, but he also wrote
some medical works. Salmawaih ibn Bunan showed thatthe use of aphrodisiacs, always so popular in
the East, was dangerous. The greatest of all these physicians was the Christian Ibn Masawaih (Mesue
Major). He dissected apes and composed various anatomical and medical writings, notably the earliest
ophthalmological treatise extant in Arabic and a collection of aphorisms. The philosopher al-Kindi wrote
medical works also, the most important being one wherein he tried to establish posology on a
mathematical basis. The Persian ‘Ai al-Tabari completed, in 850, a medical encyclopaedia entitled
Paradise of Wisdom.
16
Ibn Sahda
Flourished at al-Karkh (a suburb of Baghdad), probably about the beginning of the ninth century.
Translator of medical works from Greek into Syriac and Arabic. According to the Fihrist he translated
some works of Hippocrates into Arabic. According toHunain ibn Ishaq, he translated the “De sectis”
and the “De pulsibus ad tirones” of Galen into Syriac.
Max Meyerhof: New Light on Hunain ibn Ishaq (Isis, VIII, 704, 1926).
Jabril Ibn Bakhtyshu
Grandson of Jirjis ibn JibriI, q. v., second half of eighth century; physician to Ja’far the Barmakide, then
in 805-6 to Harun al-Rashid and later to al-Ma’mun;died in 828-29; buried in the monastery of St.
Sergios in Madain (Ctesiphon). Christian (Nestorian) physician, who wrote various medical works and
exerted much influence upon the progress of sciencein Baghdad. He was the most prominent member of the famous Bakhtyashu’ family. He took pains to obtain Greek medical manuscripts and patronized the translators.
F. Wustenfeld: Arabische Aerzte (15-16, l840). L. Leclere: Medecine arabe (vol. 1, 99-102, 1876). M.
Meyerhof: New Light on Hunain (Isls, VIII, 717, 1926).
Salmawaih Ibn Buan
Christian (Nestorian) physician, who flourished under al-Ma’mun and al-Mu’tasim and became
physician in ordinary to the latter. He died at theend of 839 or the beginning of 840. He helped Hunain
to translate Galen’s Methodus medendi and later he patronized Hunain’s activity. He and Ibn Masawaih
were scientific rivals. Salmanwaih realized the perniciousness of aphrodisiacs.
Leclerc: Medecine arabe (vol. 1, ll8, 1876). M. Meyerhof: New Light on Hunain (Isis, VIII, 71S, 1926).
Ibn Masawaih
Latin name: Mesue, or, more specifically, Mesue Major; Mesue the Elder. Abu Zakariya Yuhanna ibn
Masawaih (or Msuya). Son of a pharmacist in Jundishapur; came to Baghdad and studied under Jibrll
ibn Bakhtyashu’; died in Samarra in 857. Christian physician writing in Syriac and Arabic. Teacher of
Hunain ibn Ishaq. His own medical writings were in Arabic, but he translated various Greek medical
works into Syriac. Apes were supplied to him for dissection by the caliph al-Mu’tasim c. 836. Many
anatomical and medical writings are credited to him, notably the “Disorder of the Eye” (“Daghal alain”), which is the earliest Systematic treatise onophthalmology extant in Arabic and the Aphorisms,
the Latin translation of which was very popular in the Middle Ages.
Text and Translation Aphorismi Johannis Damnseeni (Bologna, 1489. Translation of the al-nawadir altibbiya). Many other editions. In the early editions of this and other works, Joannes [Janus] Damascenu
is named as the author.
17
Picture of Gibril Ibn Bakhtyshu
with one of his patients 453 H./1061C.
Persian Copy of Mansucript named as
“Manaeh Al-Hiwan” by Ibn Bakhtyshu or Uses of Animals
in the 8th century
18
The Time of Al-Razi
Second Half of Ninth Century
The whole ninth century was essentially a Muslim century. This more clear in the second half than of
the first, since all the scientific leaders were Muslims, or at any rate were working with and for Muslims
and wrote in Arabic.
Cultural Background
Abbasid Caliph Al-Mutawakkil (847-861) continued toprotect men of science, chiefly the physicians,
and he encouraged the school of translators headed by Hunain ibn Ishaq.
Da ud al-Zahiri founded a new school of theology, based upon a more literal interpretation of the
Qur’an; however, did not survive very long. Muslim published a new collection of traditions, arranged
according to legal topics, like Bukhari’s, but moretheoretical.
The Egyptian Dhul-Nun is generally considered the founder of Sufism, that is, of Muslim mysticism.
Arabic Mathematics and Astronomy
G. Sarton clarify that when he said “Arabic” instead “Muslim” he means that some of the most
important work accomplished under Muslim tutelage was actually done by non-Muslims but in Arabic
language.
There were so many mathematical and astronomers in Islam that is necessary to divide them into four
groups as he did before: geometers; arithmeticians;astronomers and trigometricians; astrologers.
Geometers: Al-Mahani wrote commentaries on Euclid and Archimedes, and tried to vain and divide a
sphere into two segments, being in a given ratio. Archimedian problem became a classical Muslim
problem; it led to a cubic equation which was called al-Mahani’s equation. Hilal al-Himsi translated the
first four books of Apolloinos into Arabic.
Ahmed ibn Yusuf wrote a book on proportions which are of special importance, because through it
Western mathematicians became acquainted with the theorem of Menelaos. Al-Nairizi wrote
commentaries on Ptolemy and Euclid.
Thabit ibn Qurra made very remarkable measurements of parabolas and paraboids, but is best known as
the leader of a school of translators which produced Arabic versions of some of the mathematical
classics: Euclid, Archimedes, Apollonios, Theodosios, Ptolemy, Thabit himself was the foremost
translator and revised some of the translations made by others. The two most important translators of his school, outside of himself, were Yusuf al-Khuri andIshaq ibn Hunain. A comparison of this brief
account with the similar section in the previous chapter will show that much progress had already been
made in geometry since the beginning of the century.
Arithmeticians: I mentioned in the previous chapter the writings of al-Kindi and al-Khwarizmi were in
probability the main channels through which the Hindu numerals known in Islam and later in the West.
The earliest Muslim documents bearing such numeralsdate from 874 and 888. The propagation of these
numerals may have been accelerated by the fact thatthe Muslim trade was exceedingly active in those
19
very days and reached every part of the world.
Thabit ibn Qurra developed the theory of amicable numbers. Qusta ibn Luqa translated Diophantos.
Astronomers and Trigonometricians: Al-Mahani made a series of astronomical observations from 855
to 866. Al-Nairizi compiled astronomical tables andwrote an elaborate treatise on the spherical
astrolabe; he made systemic use of the tangent. Hamid ibn Ali became famous as a constructor of
astrolabes. Thabit ibn Qurra published solar observations; he tried to improve the Ptolematic theory in
planetary motions by the addition of a ninth sphereto account for the (imaginary) trepidation of the
equinoxes. Qusta ibn Luqa wrote a treatise on the spherical astrolabes. Jabir ibn Sinan, of whom we
know nothing, but who may have been al-Battani’s father, constructed astronomical instruments, notably
a spherical astrolabe.
The greatest astronomer of the age and one of the greatest of Islam was al-Battani (Albategnius). He
made a number of observations from 877, on, compiled a catalogue of stars for the year 880, determined
various astronomical coefficients with great accuracy, discovered the motion of the solar apsides, and
made an elaborate astronomical treatise which remained authoritative until the Sixteen Century. That
treatise included naturally a trigonometical summary wherein not only sines, but tangents and
cotangents, are regularly used. It contains a tableof contangents by degrees and theorem equivalent to our formula giving the cosine of a side of a spherical triangle in function of the cosine of the opposite
angle and of the sines and cosines of the other side.
Astrologers: The most famous astrologers were Abu Bakr (Albubather), Ahmed ibn Yusuf, and Ibn
Qutaiba.
The whole mathematical and astronomical work was far more original than in the first half of the
century and on a relatively high level. It is true,Thabit ibn Qurra introduced an unfortunate error of
which a great many later astronomers (including Copernicus!) remained prisoners, but original research
always implies the possibility of error. Thabit’s error was no discreditable. The elaboration of
trigonometry was continued with great skill and originality. Much attention was paid to astronomical
instruments and especially to a new one, the spherical astrolabe, al-Battani’s masterly work was a fitting
climax to this wonderful activity.
So much for Islam. What was being done at the same time at the rest of the World? Nothing.
Muslim Alchemy and Physics
Al-Jahiz seems to have some chemical knowledge, forinstance, he knew how to obtain ammonia from
animal offals by dry distillation, but it would be absurd to call him a chemist. On the other hand, the
great physician Al-Rhazi was undoubtedly a genuine chemist: he wrote various chemical treatises,
described a number of chemical instruments, attempted to classify mineral substances, and even tried to
apply his chemical knowledge to medical purposes. He may be considered a distant ancestor of the
iatrochemists of the Sixteenth Century. He was alsoa physicist; he used the hydrostatic balance to make
investigations on specific gravity. The mathematician al-Nairizi wrote a treatise on atmospheric
phenomena.
20
Muslim Biology
The Muslims had little interest in natural history;they were certainly not tempted to study it for its own
sake, but many of their current views on biologicalsubjects may be found in their literary and historical
compilations. The most remarkable example is “The Book of Plants” composed by the historian alDinawari. The purpose of that book was primarily philological, but contains much valuable information
for the historian of botany. Al-Jahiz’s “Book of Animals” is also a mine of information though most ofit
is folkloric rather than zoological.
Muslim Medicine
So much medical work was accomplished in Islam thatis expedient to divide the physicians into two
groups: those who were primarily practitioners and those who were primarily scholars and those who
were engaged in translating the Greek medical classics into Syriac and Arabic. Of course, those of the
second group were, all of them were for foreigners,non Muslims,; but even in the first group, one-half
of the physicians was christians. thus the activitywas christian rather than Muslim, but we must not
forget that by far the greatest of all of them, al-Razi, was a Muslim.
The Persian al-Razi was simply the greatest clinician of Islam and of the whole middle ages; he was
also, as we have seen, a chemist and physicist. It would be difficult to choose between him and his
contemporary al-Battani: both were very great scientist who would have been conspicuous in any age. I
decide to call this period “The Time of al-Razi” because the physician is known to the larger public than
the astronomer, and also because his influence can be traced more directly throughout many centuries of
human effort, East and West. I have already remarked that al-Razi might be considered to be one of the
forerunners of the iatrochemists of the Renaissance. He wrote an immense medical encyclopaedia called
Al-hawi (“Continens”) and a monograph on measles and smallpox which is the masterpiece of Muslim
medicine. Ya’qub ibn akhi Hizam was the author of atreatise on horsemanship, which contains some
rudiments of veterinary art, the earliest work of its kind in Arabic.
The greatest of the translators was Hunain ibn Ishaq (Joannitius). He collected great medical
manuscripts, translated many of them, supervised the activities of other scholars, and revised their
translations. His role as regard to medical literature was very similar to that of Thabit ibn Qurra with
regard to the mathematical and astronomical texts. The school of nestorian translators beaded by Hunain
must have been quite considerable, for between themthey managed to translate the greatest part of the
Hippocratic and Galenic writings into Syriac and into Arabic. Hunain wrote also original works, notably
a treatise on ophthalmology and the introduction toGalen’s Ars parva which was immensely medical
writings: Hunain’s son Ishaq, Hubaish ibn al-Hassan, Isa ibn Yahia, Stephen son of Basil, Musa ibn
Khalid, Thabit ibn Qurra, Yusuf al-Khuri. Hunain was a very great man, but he was more of a scholar
than a scientist proper and his activity, which already had begun in the middle of the previous period,
ended in the middle of this one; in other words al-Razi and al-Battani were one generation ahead of him.
The time of Hunain, extending from 826 to 877, falls just between that of al-Khawarizimi and that of alRazi.
AL-MAHANI
Abu Abdallah Mohammed ibn Isa al-Mahani, that is, from Mahana, Kirman, Persia. Flourished c. 860,
died c. 874 to 884. Mathematician, astronomer. A series of observations of lunar and solar eclipses and planetary conjunctions, made by him from 853 to 866, was used by Ibn Yunus. He wrote commentaries
21
on Euclid and Archimedes, and improved Ishaq ibn Hunain’s translation of Menelaos’s spherics. He
tried vainly to solve an Archimedian problem: to divide a sphere by means of a plane into two segments
being in a given ratio. That problem led to a cubicequation,x
3+ c
2b = cx
2,which Muslim writers called al-Mahani’s equation.
H. Suter: Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber (26, 1900. His failure to solve the Archimedian
problem is quoted by ‘Omar al-Khayyami’). See Fr. Woepcke: L’algebra d’Omar Alkhayyami (2, 96 sq., Paris, 1851).
AHMED IBN YUSUF
Abu Ja’far Ahmed ibn Yusuf ibn Ibrahim al-Daya al Misri, i.e., the Egyptian. Flourished in Egypt in the second half and died about the Third Century H., c.912. Mathematician. Secretary of the Tulunids, whoruled in Egypt from 868 to 905. He wrote a book on similar arcs (De Similibus arcubus), commentary on
Ptolemy’s Centiloquium, and a book on proportions (“De proportione et Proportionalitate”). The latter
book is important because it influenced mediaeval thought through Leonardo de Pisa and Jordanus
Nemorarius (theorem of Menelaos about the triangle cut by a transversal; al-qatta, sector; hence figura
cata, regula catta).
M. Cantor: Ahmed und sein Buch Uber die Proportionen (Bibliotheca Mathematica, 7-9, 1888).
AL-NAIRIZI
Latin name: Anaritius. Abu-l-Abbas al-Fadl ibn Hatim al-Nairizi (i.e., from Nairiz, near Shiraz).
Flourished under al-Mu’tadid, Caliph from 892 to 902, died c. 922. Astronomer, Mathematician. He
compiled astronomical tables and wrote for al-Mu’tadid a book on atmospheric phenomena, He wrote
commentaries on Ptolemy and Euclid. The latter weretranslated by Gherardo da Cermona. Al-Nairizi
used the so-called umbra (versa), the equivalent tothe tangent, as a genuine trigonometric line (but he
was anticipated in this by Habash, q. v., first half of ninth century). He wrote a treatise on he spherical
astrolabe, which is very elaborate and seems to be the best Arabic work on the subject. It is divided into
four books: (1) Historical and critical introduction; (2) Description of the spherical astrolabe; its
superiority over plane astrolabes and all other astronomical instruments; (3 and 4) Applications.
H. Suter: Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber (45, 1900); Nachtrage (164, 1902).
THABIT IBN QURRA
Abu Hassan Thabit ibn Qurra Marawan al-Harrani, that is, from Harran, Mesopotamia, born 826-27 (or
835-36), flourished in Bagdad, died in 901. Harranian physician, astronomer, mathematician. one of the
greatest translators from Greek and Syriac into Arabic; the founder of a school of translators, in which
many of his own family we remembers. apollonios (Books 5 to 7), Archimedes, Euclid, Theodosios,
Ptolemy (geography), Galen, Eutocios were translated by him or under his direction, or translations
made by others (e.g., Ishaq ibn Hunain) were revised by him. He published solar observations,
explaining his methods. to the eight Ptolemaic spheres he added a ninth one (primum mobile) to account
for the imaginary trepidation of the equinoxes (he is chiefly responsible for the introduction of this
erroneous theory). His mensurations of parabolas and paraboloids are very remarkable. He improved the
theory of amicable numbers (if p = 3.2
n - 1; q = 3.2
n-1
-1; r = 9.2
2n-1
-1; and if p, q, and rare prime
together, 2
n
pq and2
n
rare amicable numbers). Many mathematical, astronomical, also anatomical and
medical, writings are ascribed to him (most of themin Arabic, some in Syriac).
Fihrist (272, and comment. by index). F. Wustenfled: Geschichte der arabischen Aerzte (34-36, 1840.
Followed by notices on other members of the same family).
22
YUSUF AL-KHURI
Joseph the Priest. Also called Yusuf al-Qass (same meaning) or al-Sahir (the vigilant). He was still
living under the caliphate of al-Muqtafi (902 to 908). Physician and mathematician. Translator from
Syriac into Arabic. He translated Archimedes’s lostwork on the triangles and Galen’s “De simlicium
temperamentis et facultatibus.” That the first translation was revised by Sinan ibn Thabit ibn Qurra (q.
v., first half of first century), the second by Ishaq.
H. Suter: Die Mathematiker der Araber (52, 224, 1900). Max Meyerhof: NewLight on Hunain ibn Ishaq
(Isis, VIII, 704, 1926).
HAMID IBN ALI
Abu-l-Rabi Hamid ibn Ali al-Wasiti. From Waist in Lower Mesopotamia. Flourished in the ninth
century, probably toward the end. Muslim astronomer. According to Ibn Yunus, Ali ibn Isa and Hamid
were the foremost constructors of astrolabes. Ibn Yunus compares them to Ptolemy and Galen! This
proves the importance which Muslims attached to good instruments.
H. Suter: Mathematiker (40, 1900).
MUSLIM (OR ARABIC) MEDICINE
SABUR IBN SAHL
Flourished at Jundishapur. Died Dec. 3, 860. Christian physician. He wrote an antidotary (Aqrabadhin),
divided into 22 books, which was possibly the earliest of its kind to influence Muslim medicine, and
other medical works. This antidotary enjoyed much popularity until it was superseded Ibn al-Tilmidh’s
new one (q. v., first half of twelfth century).
F. Wustenfled: arabische Aerzte (25, 1840).
YAHYA IBN SARAFYUN
Separion the elder. Yahya ibn Sarafyun. Flourished in Damascus in the second half of the ninth century.
Christian physician who wrote in Syriac two medicalcompilations (Kunnash, pandects), one in 12
books, the other in 7 books. the latter was translated into Arabic by various writers and into Latin by
Gherardo da Cermona (Practica sive breviarium). It was very popular during the middle ages. Its last
book deals with antidotes. Ibn Srarfyun attached great importance to venesection and gave subtle
prescriptions concerning the choice of the veins tobe opened.
Fihrist (29; 303,1. 3; and comm. 296, note 1). Wustenfeld: Geschichte der arabischen Aerzte (49,
1840).
AL-RAZI
In Latin: Rhazes. Abu Bakr Mohammed ibn Zakaria al Razi. Born in Ray, near Tehran, Persia, about the middle of the ninth century. Flourished in Ray and in Bagdad. died 923-24. Physician, physicist,
alchemist. The greatest clinician of Islam and middle ages. Galenic in theory, he combined with his
immense learning true Hippocratic wisdom. His chemical knowledge was applied by him to medicine;
he might be considered an ancestor of the iatrochemists. Of his many writings, the most important are
the “Kitab al Hawi” (Continens), an enormous encyclopaedia containing many extracts from Greek and
Hindu authors and also observations of his own; the“Kitab al Mansuri” (Liber Almansoris), a smaller
compilation in ten books based largely on Greek science, and finally his famous monograph on smallpox
and measles “Kitab al-jadari wal-hasba” (De variolis et morbiliis; de peste, de pestilentia), the oldest
description of variola and the masterpiece of Muslim medicine. many contributions to gynaecology,
obstetrics, and ophthalmic surgery can be traced back to him.
23
He made investigations on specific gravity by meansof the hydrostatic balance, which he called almizan al-tabi’i. Various chemical treatises are ascribed to him, and one of them (Arcandorum liber,
apocryphal?) contains a list of 25 pieces of chemical apparatus. He also made an attempt to classify
chemical substracts.
The al-Hawi has not been published, and there is not even a single complete manuscript in existence. A
latin translation, Liber dictus Elhavi, appeared inBrescia (1486), followed by various Ventian editions.
The liber ad Almansurem, in ten books was first published in Milano (1481) and was frequently
republished.
HUNAIN IBN ISHAQ
In Latin, Joannitius. Abu Zaid Hunain ibn Ishaq al-Ibadi. Born in Hira, 809-10. Flourished at
Jundishapur, then in Baghdad, where he died in October 877. Famous Nestorian physician; one of the
greatest scholars and of the noblest men of his tome. Pupil of Ibn Masawiah. Employed by the Banu
Musa to collect Greek manuscripts and translate them into Arabic, he became the foremost translator of
medical works. These translations were made partly with the assistance of other scholars.
It is reported that the Abbasid caliph al-Mutawakkil created (or endowed) a school where translations
were made under Hunain’s supervision.
It is not too much to say that the translations made by Hunain and his disciplines marked a considerable
progress in the history of scholarship. He took infinite pains to obtain manuscripts of the Greek medical
texts; he collated them, examined the existing Syriac and Arabic versions, and translated them as
accurately and as well as possible. His methods remind one of modern methods. to appreciate more the
value of his efforts, one must realize that the Syriac versions were very unsatisfactory and the Arabic
versions already available were hardly better. Hunain carefully compared these versions with the great
text to prepare his new arabic translations. His activity was prodigious; it began as early as c.826 and
lasted till the end of his days.
It is typical of Hunain scientific honesty that hevery severely criticized the translations made by
himself early in life. As his experience increased,his scientific ideal became more exacting. He
translated a great many of Galen’s works, also various writings of Hippocrates, Plato, Aristotle,
Dioscordies, and Ptolemy’s Quadripartitum. The importance of his activity can be measured in another
way by stating that the translations prepared by Hunain and his school were the foundation of that
Muslim canon of Knowledge which dominated medical thought almost to modern times.
Various medical and astronomical writings are ascribed to him (e. g., on the tides, on meteors, on the
rainbow). His most Important work is his introduction to Galen’s “Ars prava” (“Isagoge Johannitii ad
Tegni Galeni”) which was mensly popular during the Middle Ages and played the same part in the
teaching of medicine as Porphyry’s “Isagoge” in that of logic. Galenic classification extended and
elaborated.
Fihrist (294 f and by index). Ferdinand Wustenfeld:Geschichte der arabischen Aerzte und
Naturforscher.
QUSTA IBN LUQA
Qusta ibn Luqa al-Ba’labakki, i. e. from Baalbek orHeliopolis, Syria. Flourished in Bagdad, died in
Armenia about the end of the third century H., i. e., c. 912. A Christian of Greek origin. Philosopher,
Physician, mathematician, astronomer, Translations of Diophantos, Theodosios, Autolycos, Hypsicles,
24
Aristarchos, Heron were made or revised by him, or made under his direction, He wrote commentaries
on Euclid and a treatise on the spherical astrolabe.
Fihrist (295 and by index). C. Brockelmann : Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur (Vol. I, 204-205,
512, 1898).
JABIR IBN SINAN
Jaber ibn Sinan al-Harrani is one of the makers of astronomical instruments mentioned in the Fihrist at
the end of the mathematical section. Nothing else is said of him, but al-Battani’s full name suggests that
this Jaber may have been his father. According to al-Biruni, this Jaber was the first to make a spherical
astrolabe.
Fihrist (p. 284). Sutre’s translation (p. 41). H. Suter : Die Mathematiker (68, 224, 1900).
AL-BATTANI
In Latin: Albategnius, Albatenius. The origin of that nisba is unknown. Abu Abdallah Mohammed ibn
Jabir ibn Sinan al-Battani, al-Harrani, al-Sabi, born before 858 in or near Harran. Flourished at al-Raqqa,
in the Euphrates, died in 929 near Samarra. Of Sabin origin, though himself a Muslim. The greatest
astronomer of his race and time and one of the greatest of Islam. Various astrological writings, including
a commentary on Ptolemy’s “Tetrabiblon” are ascribed to him, but his main work is an astronomical
treatise with tables (“De scientia stellarum,” “ Denumeris stellarum et motibus”) which was extremely
influential until the Renaissance. He made astronomical observations of remarkable range and accuracy
from 877 on. His tables contain a catalogue of fixed stars for the years 880-81 (not 911-12). He found
that the longitude of the sun’s apogee had increased by 16
o
47‘ increase since Ptolemy, that implied the
discovery the motion of the solar apsides and of a slow variation in the equation of time. He determined
many astronomical coefficients with great accuracy:precession 54.5“ a year; inclination of the ecliptic,
23
o
35‘. He did not believe in the trepidation of the equinoxes. (Copernicus believed in it!)
The third chapter of his astronomy is devoted to trigonometry. He used sines regularly with a clear
consciousness of their superiority over the Greek chords. He completed the introduction of the functions
umbra extensa and umbera versa (hence our contangents and tangents) and gave a table of contangents
be degrees. He knew the relation between the sides and angles of a spherical triangle which we express
by the formula
cos a = cos c cos c+ sin b sin c cos A.
H. Suter : Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber (45-47, 1900).
ABU BAKR
In Latin: Albubather. Abu Bakr al-Hassan ibn al-Khasib. Of Persian origin. Flourished probably in the
third quarter of the ninth century. astrologer who wrote in Persian and arabic and would hardly deserve
to be quoted but for the importance given to him inthe middle ages. The work he is best known by (“De
nativitatibus”) was translated into Latin by one canonicus Salio in Padua 1218; it was also translatedinto
Hebrew.
Fihrist (p. 276 and Commentary, p. 131). H. Suter :Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber (32,
1900); Nachtrage (162, 1902); encycl. of Islam, II,274, 1916.
25
The Time of Al-Mas’udi
First Half of Tenth Century
The overwhelming superiority of Muslim culture continued to be felt throughout the tenth century.
Indeed, it was felt more strongly than over, not only the foremost men of science were Muslims, but also
because cultural influences are essentially cumulative. By the beginning, or at any rate by the middleof
the century, the excellence of muslim science was already so well established, even in the West, that
each new arabic work benefited to some extent by the prestige pertaining to all. To be sure, other
languages, such as Latin, Greek, or Hebrew were also used by scholars, but the works written in those
languages contained nothing new, and in the field of science, as in any other, when one ceases to go
forward, one already begins to go backward. All thenew discoveries and the new thoughts were
published in arabic. strangely enough, the languageof the Qur’an had thus become the international
vehicle of scientific progress.
The development of Muslim culture was fostere in Spain by the eighth Umayyad caliph of the west, Abd
al-Rahman II, the advances of Muslim science continued to take place almost extensively in the east.
Muslim Mathematics and Astronomy
Practically all the writings of this period were arabic. Let us consider these Arabic writings first. The
mathematical production of this period was less abundant and on whole less brilliant than that of the
previous one, but it was, for the first time exclusively Muslim, and there were at least two very
distinguished mathematicians, Abu Kamil and Ibrahimibn Sinan. Ibn al-Adami and Ibn Amajur
compiled astronomical tables; the latter was said to be one of the best Muslim observers; he made a
number of observations between 885 and 933, being aided by his son Ali and a slave called Moflih. Abu
Kamil perfected al-Khwarizmi’s algebra; he made a special study of the pentagon and decagon and of
the addition and subtraction of radicals; he could determine and construct the two (real) roots of a
quadratic equation. Abu Othman translated Book X ofEuclid, together with Pappos’s commentary upon
it. Al-Balkhi and the physician Sinan ibn Thabit wrote various treatises on mathematical, astronomical,
and astrological subjects. Al-Hamdani compiled astronomical tables for Yemen, and his great work on
archaeology of his country contains much information on the scientific views of the early Arabs.
Ibrahim ibn Sinan was primarily a geometer; he wrote commentaries on Apollonios and on Almagest
and his determination of the area of a parabola wasone of the greatest achievements of Muslim
mathematics. Al-Imrani wrote astrological treatise and a commentary on Abu Kamil’s algebra.
Muslim Physics and Alchemy
Ibn Wahshiya who will be dealt with more fully below, was primarily an alchemist and an occultist. His
works do not seem to have any chemical importance, but they may help to understand alchemical
symbolism.
Muslim Medicine
The newer medical ideas were, all of them, published in Arabic, but not necessarily by Muslims. The
greatest physician of the age was a Jew, Ishaq al-Isra’ili (Isaac Judaeus). We owe him, for instance, the
26
main mediaeval treatise on urine.
Two of the Muslim mathematicians dealt with above, Abu Othman and Sinan ibn Thabit, became
famous as organizers of hospitals; Sinan took painsto raise the scientific standards of the medical
profession; Abu Othman translated Galenic writings into Arabic.
Muslim Mathematicians
IBN AL-ADAMI
Mohammed ibnal-Husain ibn Hamid. Flourished at the end of the ninth century or the beginning of the
tenth. Muslim astronomer. He compiled astronomical tables which were completed after his death by his
pupil al-Qasim ibn Mohammed ibn Hisham al-Madani. They appeared in 920-21 under the title Nazm
al-iqd (Arrangement of the Pearl Necklace”), together with a theoretical introduction (lost!).
H. Suter: Mathematiker (44, 1920).
IBN AMAJUR
Abul-Qasim Abdallah Ibn Amajur (or Majur?) al-Turki. He originated from Fargana, Turkestan, and
flourished c. 885-933. Muslim astronomer. One of the greatest observers among the Muslims. He made
many observations between 885 and 933, together with his son Abu-Hasan Ali and emancipated slave of
the latter, named Muflih. Father and son are often called Banu Amajur. Some of their observations are
recorded by Ibn Yunus. Together they produced many astronomical tables: the Pure (alkhalis), the
Girdled (al-Muzannar), the Wonderful (al-badi), tables of Mars according to Persian chronology, etc.
H. Suter: Mathematiker (49, 211, 1900; 165, 1902).
ABU KAMIL
Abu Kamil Shuja ibn Aslam ibn Mohammed ibn Shuja al-hasib al-Misri, i. e., the Egyptian calculator.
He originated from Egypt and flourished after al-Khwarizmi, he died c. 850, and before al-Imrani, who
died 955. We place him tentatively about the beginning of the tenth century. Mathematician. He
perfected al-Khawarizimi’s work on algebra. Determination and construction of both roots of quadratic
equations. Multiplication and division of algebraicquantities. Addition and subtraction of radicals
(corresponding to our formula
(a) +(b) = [ a + b +(2ab) ] ).
Study of the pentagon and decagon (algebraic treatment). His work was largely used by al-Kakhi and
Leonardo de Pisa.
H. Suter: Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber (43, 1900; Nachtrage, 164, 1902).
ABU OTHMAN
Abu Othman Sa’id ibn Ya’qub al-Dimashqi, (i. e., the Damascene). Flourished at Bagdad under alMuqtadir, Khalifa from 908 to 932. Muslim physicianand mathematician. He translated into Arabic
works of Aristotle, Euclid, Galen (on temperaments and on the pulse), and porphyry. His most important
translation was that of Book X of Euclid, together with Pappos’s commentary on it which is extant only
in Arabic. The supervision of hospitals in Bagdad, Mekka, and Medina was intrusted to him in 915.
L. Leclerc: Medicine arabe (vol. 1, 374, 1876. Onlya few lines). H. Suter: Die Mathematiker und
Astronomen der Araber (49, 211, 1900).
27
AL-BALKHI
Abu Zaid Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi. Born in Shamistiyan, province of Balkh, died in 934. Geographer,
mathematician. A member of the Imamiya sect; disciple of al-Kindi. Of the many books ascribed to him
in the Fihrist, I quote: the excellency of mathematics; on certitude in astrology. His “Figures of the
Climates” (Suwar al-aqalim) consisted chiefly of geographical maps.
The “Book of the Creation and History” formerly ascribed to him was really written in 966 by Mutahhar
ibn Tahir al-Maqdisi (q. v., next chapter).
M. J. de Goeje: Die Istakhri-Balkhi Frage (Z. d. deutschen morgenl. Ges., vol. 25, 42-58, 1871). H.
Suter: Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber (211, 1900).
IBRAHIM IBN SINAN
Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Sinan ibn Thabit ibn Qurra. Born in 908-9, died in 946. Grandson of Thabit ibn
Qurra (q. v. second half of ninth century); his father Sinan, who embraced Islam and died in 943, was
also a distinguished astronomer and mathematician (see medical section below). Muslim mathematician
and astronomer. He wrote commentaries on the first book of “Conics” and on the “Almagest”, and many
papers on geometrical and astronomical subjects (for example, on sundials). His Quadrature of the
parabola was much simpler than that of Archimedes, in fact the simplest ever made before the invention
of the integral calculus.
H. Suter: Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber (53, 1900).
Al-IMRANI
Ali ibn Ahmed al-Imrani. Born at Mosul in Upper Mesopotamia; he flourished there and died in 955056.
Muslim mathematician and astrologer. He wrote a commentary on Abu Kamil’s algebra and various
astrological treatises. One of these, on the choosing of (Auspicious) days, was translated by Savasodra at
Barcelona in 1131 or 1134 (De electiobus) (q. v. first half of twelfth century).
H. Suter: Mathematiker (56, 1900; 165, 1902).
Muslim Agriculture
IBN WAHSHIYA
Abu Bakr Ahmed (or Mohammed) ibn Ali ibn al-Wahshiya al-Kaldani or al-Nabati. Born in Iraq of a
Nabataean family, flourished about the end of the third century H., i. e., before 912. Alchemist. Author
of alchemistic and occult writings (quoted in the Fihrist). He wrote c. 904 the so-called “Nabataean
agriculture” (Kitab al-falaha al-nabatiya), an alleged translation from ancient Babylonain sources, the
purpose of which was to extol the Babylonian-Aramean-Syrian civilization (or more simply the “old”
civilization before the hegira) against that of theconquering Arabs. It contains valuable informationon
agriculture and superstitions.
This forgery became famous because the great Russian orientalist Khvolson was entirely deceived by it.
Of course, Ibn Wahshiya was as unable to read the cuneiform texts as the Egyptian Arabs the
hieroglyphic.
Fihrist (311-312, 358).
28
Arabic Medicine
ISHAQ AL-ISRA’ILI
Isaac Judaeus. Isaac Israeli the elder. (Not to be mistaken for the Spanish astronomer Isaac Israeli the
younger; q. v., first half of fourteenth century.) Isaac ibn Solomon. Abu Ya’qub Ishaq ibn Sulaiman alIsra’ili. Born in Egypt; flourished in Qairawan, Tunis, where he died, a centenarian, about the middleof
the tenth century (c. 932?). A Jewish physician and philosopher, he was one of the first to direct the
attention of the Jews to Greek science and philosophy. He was a physician to the Fatimid caliph “Ubaid
Allah al-Mahdi” (909 to 934).
At Al-Mahdi’s request Al-Isra’ili composed many medical writings in Arabic. These were translated
into Latin in 1087 by Constantine the African, intoHebrew, and into Spanish. They were very
influential works. The main medical writings are: on fevers (Kitab al-Hummayat); the book of simple
drugs and nutriments (Kitab al-adwiya al-mufrada wal-aghdhiya; diaetae universales et particulares); on
urine (Kitab al-Baul, by far the most elaborate mediaeval treatise on the subject); on deontology, the
“Guide of the physician” (lost in Arabic, extant inHebrew under the title of Manhag (or Musarharofe’im). Al-Isra’ili also wrote a medico-philosophical treatise on the elements (Kitab al-istiqsat), and
another on definitions. Isaac Al-Isra’ili was the earliest Jewish philosopher (or one of the earliest)to
publish a classification of the sciences. This was essentially the Aristotelian one as transmitted and
modified by the Muslims.
Wustenfeld: Geschichte der arabischen Aerzte (51-52, 1840).
29
The Time of Abu-l-Wafa
Second Half of Tenth Century
The period, which we have just tried to analyze, and then to reconstruct, was on the whole one of
comparative rest. There was no retrogression, but the advance of mankind, which had been so
vigorously accelerated during the ninth century through the youthful energy of Islam, was then distinctly
slowed up. It is not the first time that we thus witness a momentary quieting down of human activity; on
the contrary, we have already had occasion to observe many such periods of fallow. e. g., the first half of
the second century B. C., the second half of the fifth, the second half of the sixth, the second half of the
seventh, the first half of the eighth. But in each case the slowing up was followed by a new acceleration.
In other words, when we study the creative activityof the mankind as a whole, we find that humanity
behaves very much as an individual man would do, that period of unusual achievements are generally
followed by depressions, and periods of rest and fallow by new efforts.
The intellectual progress of mankind would not be correctly represented by a constantly increasing
function, but rather by a sort of sinusoidal curve moving steadily upward. But how do we account for
human tiredness, considering that the burden is periodically taken up by new generations? Leaving out
of the question political and other external factors, which must necessarily influence human energy, we
may explain the periodical slowing up in two ways. In the first place, the original flame of enthusiasm,
which stimulates intellectual advance, is bound to die out gradually unless new men of genius appear
from time to time to keep it alive; of course, there are no means of predicting when and where such men
will appear. In the second place, the very progressof knowledge is certain to fill the more conservative
minds with a growing anxiety, and finally to determine an orthodox reaction. For example, in the first
half of the tenth century an intellectual reaction was led, very successfully, by al-Ash’ari. Mankind does
not go forward as a united body; on the contrary, each advance has to be paid a protracted struggle
between those who long for more light and those whoare afraid of it. The latter are far more numerous
than the former, but less intelligent, and thus bound to be beaten in the end, this accounts at once for the
sinusoidal advance and its upward tendency, or, in other words, for the slowness, but also for the
continuity of human progress.
To come back to the second half of the tenth century, we shall see presently that it was a period of
renewed activity in almost every field; the partialfallowness of the first half of the century was thus
amply rewarded by more abundant crops and mankind was able to make a few more leaps forward.
Cultural background: Mohammed ibn Ahmed al-Khwarizmi wrote “The Key of the Sciences.”
Muslim Mathematics and astronomy:All of the creative work was done in Islam. Muslim
mathematicians were so numerous that, for the sake of clarity, I must divide them into three groups -
arithmeticians, algebraists, and geometers; astronomers and trigonometricians; astrologers.
Arithmeticians, algebraists, and geometers:It is well to begin this section with a brief account of the
progress of the Hindu numerals. By the middle of the tenth century a special form of them, the so called
dust (ghubar) numerals, was already used in Muslim Spain. The eastern Arabic form was represented in
an Egyptian grafitto, dated 960-61. Mutahhar ibn Taher wrote a number of 10 figures by their means.
The earliest Latin example of these numerals is found in a manuscript written in 976 near Logrono, in
the Christian part of Spain.
30
Abu Ja’far al-Khazin wrote commentaries on the tenth book of Euclid and other works and solved alMahani’s cubic equation. Al-Shaghani investigated the trisection of the angle. Nazif ibn Yumn
translated the tenth book of Euclid. The great astronomer Abu-l-Wafa wrote commentaries on Euclid,
Diophantos, and al-Khwarizmi, arithmetical and geometrical treatises, and solved a number of
geometrical and algebraical problems. Abu-l-Fath improved the Arabic translation of Apollonios’s
Conics and commented upon the first five books. Al-Kuhi was especially interested in the Archimedian
and Apollonian problems leading up to higher equations and discovered some elegant solutions. which
he discussed. Al-Sijzi worked along the same lines;he made a special study of the intersections of
conics and found a geometrical means of trisecting angles. Al-Khujandi, better known as an astronomer,
proved that the sum of two cubic numbers can not bea cubic number. Maslama ibn Ahmed composed a
commercial arithmetic and studied an amicable number. (This would confirm that he was acquainted to
the writings of the Brethren of Purity, for these were very much interested in the theory of numbers -a
natural consequence of their Neoplatonic tendencies.)
Astronomical and trigonometricians:At the very beginning of this period we meet one of the best
Muslim astronomers: Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi, who compiled an illustrated catalogue of stars, based
upon his own observations. Ibn al-A’lam was also a famous observer and published astronomical tables.
Al-Shaghani invented and constructed astronomical instruments. The Buwayhid rulers, especially Sharaf
al-dawla, were deeply interested in astronomy; Sharaf built a new observatory in Bagdad. The
instruments were probably made by al-Shaghani, and the great mathematician, al-Kuhi, was the leader
of the astronomers.
The foremost of the astronomers employed by Sharaf was the Persian Abu-l-Wafa. It is true he was once
believed to be; he did not discover the variation of the moon, but he continued in a masterly way the
elaboration of trigonometry. Taken all in all, the fame of Abu-l-Wafa is more solidly based upon his
mathematical than upon his astronomical contributions, but I placed him here because, in those days,
trigonometry was considered a branch of astronomy.
Al-Khujandi made astronomical observations in Ray. Abu Nasr improved the Arabic text of Menelaos’s
Spherics and dealt with trigonometrical subjects. Maslama ibn Ahmed edited and revised alKhwarizmi’s astronomical tables, and wrote a commentary on Ptolemy’s Planisphere.
Astrologers:The main astrologers were al-Qabisi in Syria and Rabi ibn Zaid in Spain; the latter was a
Christian, Bishop of Cordova under al-Hakam II.
Muslim Alchemy and Technology
The earliest scientific treatise in modern Persian (hitherto the Muslim Persians had written in Arabic)
happens to be one of the most chemical works written by a Muslim until that time. It is really a treatise
on materia medica, but it contains abundant information upon the preparation and properties of mineral
substances. It is obvious that its author; Abu Mansour Muwaffak, was unusually stepped in chemistry.
More may be learned about the chemical knowledge ofthose days, in the Eastern Caliphate, in the
encyclopaedic works dealt with in Section III.
As to the Muslim West, the medical treatise of Abu-l-Qasim contains also various items of chemical
interest; it explains the preparation of drugs by sublimation and distillation. two important alchemic
writings have been ascribed to Maslama ibn Ahmed, but they are possibly a little later.
31
Muslim Medicine
The subtitle of this section is a little misleading, for the many adjectives tend to be the fact that
everything was done by the Muslims alone.
Muslim physicians were so numerous that it is necessary to divide them into groups, and the most
expedient division is, this time, a regional one. Thus I shall deal successively with the physician who
flourished in the Eastern Caliphate (reserving a separate place for one of them who wrote in Persian),in
Egypt, in Spain, and in North Africa.
The first group is the most numerous, as we would expect it. Ahmed al-Tabari wrote a medical treatise
called Hippocratic treatments. Ali ibn Abbas (HallyAbbas), who flourished a little later, was one of the
greatest physicians of Islam. He compiled a medicalencyclopedia, “The Royal Book”, which was very
valuable but superseded by Avicenna’s Qanun. It contains a number of original observations, under the
patronage of Adud-al-Dawla, a new hospital was established in Bagdad in 979. Al-Husain ibn Ibrahim
improved the Arabic text of Dioscorides. Abu Sahl al-Masihi, who was, as his name indicates, a
Christian, wrote a number of medical treatises. He shares with al-Qumri the fame of having been one of
the teacher of Avicenna, the prince of mediaeval physicians. It is even possible that one of Abu Sahl’s
treatises gave Avicenna the first idea of composinghis Qanun.
Note that all of those were Persians, but all wrote, as far as we know, in Arabic. Another Persian, Abu
Masour Muwaffak, had the idea of compiling a great medical treatise in Persian. That treatise dealt with
materia medica and contains a general outline of pharmacological theory. Its intrinsic value is great,but
it has also a considerable extrinsic importance, because it is the oldest prose work in modern Persian.
Two distinguished physicians of that time flourished in Egypt, al-Tamimi and al-Baladi. The former is
chiefly known because of his medical guide (Murshid), the latter wrote a treatise on the hygiene of
pregnancy and infancy.
Medical activity in Muslim Spain, was almost of thesame level as that which obtained in the Eastern
Caliphate; in some respects it was even superior. One of the most distinguished of the Spanish
physicians, however, was not a Muslim, but a Jew, the great Hasdia ibn Shaprut. He translated
Dioscorides into Arabic with the aid of the Greek monk Nicholas. Arib ibn Sa’d wrote a treatise on
gynecology, obstetrics, and pediatrics. Abu-lQasim (Abulcasis) was the greatest Muslim surgeon; he
exerted a very deep influence upon he development of the European surgery down to the Renaissance.
Ibn Juljul wrote a commentary on Dioscorides and added a supplement to it, and he compiled a history
of the Hispano-Muslim physicians of his time.
The last Muslim country to be considered, Tunis, nutured also a great physician, Ibn al-Jazzar (Algizar),
author of a medical vade-mecum which obtained considerable success throughout the Middle Ages.
Muslim Mathematics and Astronomy
MUTAHHAR IBN TAHIR
Mutahhar ibn Tahir al-Maqdisi (or al-Muqaddasi), i.e., the native or inhabitant of the Holy City. From
Jerusalem, flourished in Bust, Sijistan, c. 966. Encylcopaedist. Author of the book of the Creation and of
History (Kitab al-bad’wal-tarikh), a summary of the knowledge of his day based not simply on Muslim,
but also on Iranian and jewish sources. He quoted as a curiosity a very large number, 4,320,000,000
(representing the duration of the world in years according to the Hindus), in Hindu or Devanagari
32
numerals.
Cl. Haurt: Leveritable auteur du Libre de la creation et de lhistoire (Journal Asiatique (9), vol. 18,16-21, 1901. Concludind that Mutahhar was the author);Arabic literature (284, 291, London, 1903).
ABU JA’FAR AL-KHAZIN
Alkhazin means the treasurer or the librarian. Bornin Khurasan, died between 961 and 971.
Mathematician, astronomer. Author of a commentary on the Tenth book of Euclid and of other
mathematical and astronomical writings. He solved by means of conic sections the cubic equation which
had baffled al-Mahani’s efforts, the so-called al-Mahani’s equation (q. v., second half of the ninth
century.)
Fihrist (p. 266, 282); Suter’s translation (p. 17, 39).
NAZIF IBN YUMN
Nazif ibn Yumn (or Yaman?) al-Qass means the priest(particularly, the Christian priest). Flourished
under the Buwayhid sultan Adud al-dawla; died c. 990. Mathematician and translator from Greek into
Arabic. He thus translated the Tenth book of Euclid. H. Suter: Mathematiker (68, 1900).
ABU-L-FATH
Abu-l-Fath Mahmud ibn Mohammed ibn Qasim ibn Fadl al-Isfahani. From Ispahan, flourished probably
c. 982. Persian mathematician. He gave a better Arabic edition of the Conics of Apollonios and
commented on the first books.
The Conics had been translated a century before by Hilal al-Himsi (books 1-4) and Thabit ibn Qurra
(books 5-7) (see second half of ninth century).
H. Suter: Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber (98, 1900).
AL-KUHI
Abu Sahl Wijan (or Waijan) ibn Rustam al-Kuhi. Of Kuh, Tabaristan, flourished in Bagdad c. 988.
Mathematician, astronomer. Many mathematical and astronomical writings are ascribed to him. He was
the leader of the astronomers working in 988 at theobservatory built of the Buwayhid Sharaf al-dawla.
He devoted his attention to those Archimedian and Apollonian problems leading to equations of a higher
degree than the second; He solved some of them and discussed the conditions of solvability. These
investigations are among the best of Muslim geometry.
M. Steinschnieder: Lettere intorno ad Alcuhi a D. Bald. Boncompagni (Roma, 1863). Suter: Die
Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber (75-76, 1900).
AL-SIJZI
Abu Sa’id Ahmed ibn Mohammed ibn Abd al-Jalil al-Sijzi (short for al-Sijistani). Lived from c. 951 to
c. 1024. Mathematician who made a special study of the intersections of conic sections and circles. He
replaced the old kinematical trisection of an angleby a purely geometric solution (intersection of a circle
and an equilateral hyperbola.)
Suter: Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber (80-81, 224, 1900).
ABD AL-RAHMAN AL-SUFI
Abu-l-Husan Abd al-Rahman ibn Omar al-Fufi al-Razi.Born in Ray 903, died 986. One of the greatest
Muslim astronomers. Friend and teacher of the Buwayhid sultan Adud al-dawla. His main work is the
“Book of the Fixed Stars” illustrated with figures “Kitab al-kawakib al-thabita al-musawwar”, one of the
33
three masterpieces of Muslim observational astronomy (the two others being due to Ibn Yunus, first half
of the eleventh century, and Ulugh Beg, first half of the fifteenth century).
Fihrist (284). Suter: Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber (62, 1900).
IBN AL-A’LAM
Abu-l-Qasim Ali ibn al-Husain al-Alawi, al-Sharif al-Hisaini. Flourished at the Buwayhid court under
Adud al-dawla (q. v.,); died at Bagdad in 985. Muslim astronomer. The accuracy of his observations was
praised; he compiled astronomical tables which obtained much favor during at least two centuries.
H. Suter: Die Mathematiker der Araber (62, 1900).
AL-SAGHANI
Abu Hamid Ahmed ibn Mohammed al-Saghani al-Asturlabi, i. e., the astrolabe maker of Saghan, near
Merv, flourished in Bagdad, died 990. Mathematician, astronomer, inventor and maker of instruments.
He worked in Sharaf al-dawla’s observatory and, perhaps, constructed the instruments which were used
there. Trisection of the angle.
Suter: Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber (p. 65, 1900).
ABU-L-WAFA
Abu-l-Wafa Mohammed ibn Mohammed ibn Yahya ibn Isma’il ibn al-Abbas al-Buzjani. Born in
Buzjan, Quhistan, in 940, flourished in Bagdad, where he died at 997 or 998. Astronomer and one of the
greatest Muslim mathematicians. One of the last Arabic translators and commentators of Greek works.
He wrote commentaries on Euclid, Diophantos, and al-Khwarizimi (all lost); astronomical tables (zij alwadih) of which we have possibly a later adaptation; a practical arithmetic; “the complete book” (Kitab
al-kamil), probably a simplified version of the Almagest. The book of applied geometry (Kitab al
handasa) is probably in its present form, the work of a disciple.
His astronomical knowledge was hardly superior to Ptolemy’s. He did not discover the variation, the
third inequality of the moon. He simply spoke of the second eviction, the Ptolematic, essentially
different from the variation discovered by Tycho Brahe.
Solution of the geometrical problems with one opening of the compass. Construction of a square
equivalent to other squares. Regular polyhedra (based on Pappos). Approximative construction of
regular heptagon (taking for its side half the sideof the equilateral triangle inscribed in the same circle).
Constructions of parabola by points. Geometrical solution of
x
4
= a and x
4
+ ax
4
= b.
Abu-l-Wafa contributed considerably to the development of trigonometry. He was probably the first to
show the generality of the sine theorem relative tospherical triangles. He gave a new method for
constructing sine tables, the value of sin 30‘ being correct to the eighth decimal place. He knew relations
equivalent to ours for sin (a +b) (though in an awkward form) and to
2sin
2
a/2 = 1 - cos a sin a = 2 sin a/2 cos a/2.
He made a special study of the tangent; calculated a table of tangents; introduced the secant and
cosecant; knew those simple relations between the sic trigonometric lines, which are now often used to
define them.
Fihrist (I, 266, 283, Suter’s translation, p. 39).
34
AL-KHUJANDI
Abu Muhamid Hamid ibn al-Khidr al-Khujandi. Of Khujanda, on the jax artes, or Sir Daria,
Transoxania, died c. 1000. Astronomer, mathematicain. He made astronomical observations, including a
determination of the obliquity of the ecliptic, in Ray in 994. He proved (impefectly) that the sum of two
cubic numbers cannot be a cubic number> He may be the discoverer of the sine theorem relative to
spherical triangles.
Suter : Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber (74, 213, 1900).
ABU NASR
Abu Nasr Mansur ibn Ali ibn Iraq. Teacher of al-Bairuni; still active in 1007. Muslim mathematician
and astronomer; one of three to whom the discovery of the sine theorem relative to spherical trianglesis
ascribed. He gave in 1007-8 an improved edition of Menelaos’s Spherica. Various other writings on
trigonometry are ascribed to him.
H. Suter : Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber (81, 255, Leipzig, 1900).
MASLAMA IBN AHMED
Abu-l-Qasim Maslam ibn Ahmed al-Majriti. Of Madrid,flourished in Cordova, died in or before 1007.
Astronomer, mathematician, occulist. The earliest Hispano-Muslim scientist of any importance. He
edited and corrected the astronomical tables of al-Khwarizmi, replacing the Persian by the Arabic
chronology. He wrote a treatise on the astrolabe (translated into Latin by Joan. Hispalensis); a
commentary on Ptolemy’s Planisphaerium translated by Rudolph of Bruges (q. v., first half of twelfth
century); a commercial arithmetic (al-mu’amalat); abook on the generation of animals (?). He may have
introduced into Spain the writings of the Prethren Purity, or else this was done later by one of his
disciples, al-Karmani. He spoke of the erotic powerof amicable numbers (220, 284). Two alchemic
writings, the “Sage’s step” (Rutbat al-hakim) and the “Aim of the Wise”, (Ghayat al-hakim), are
ascribed to him. The second is well known in the Latin translation made in 1252 by order of King
Alfonso under the title Picatrix; the original Arabic text dates probably from the middle of the eleventh
century.
Ibn Khaldun: Prolegmenes. F. Wustenfeld: Geschichteder arabischen Aerzte (61, 1840).
AL-QABISI
Abu-l-Saqr Abd al-Aziz ibn Uthman ibn Ali al-Qabisi. Pupil of al-Imrani (q. v. , first half of tenth
century) in Mosul; after the latter’s death in 955-56 he was patronized by the Hamdanid sultan Sayf aldawla, who died in 966-67. Famous Muslim astrologer. His main writings are his introduction to the art
of astrology (al-madkhal ila sina’at (ahkam) al-nujum) and treatise on the conjunctions of planets; both
were translated into Latin by Joannes Hispalensis (first half of twelfth century). He, or his patron Sayf
al-dawla, wrote a poem on the rainbow.
H. Suter : Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber (60, 1900; Nachtrag, 165, 1902).
RABI IBN ZAID
Rabi ibn Zaid al-Usquf. Meaning the bishop (from the Greek). He was Bishop of Cordova and Elvira
under al-Hakam II. Flourished at Cordova c. 961. Spanish Christian writing n Arabic. He coposed
various astronological treatises and dedicated to Hakam II a calendar (Kitab al-anwa’, liber anoe)
entitled “The Division of times and the Good of bodies.”
Suter : Mathematiker (96, 212, 1900).
35
Muslim Alchemy and Technology
See notes on Abu-l-Qasim
Muslim Medicine
AHMED AL-TABARI
Abu-l-Hasan Ahmed ibn Mohammed al-Tabari. Of Tabaristan; was physician to the Buwwayhid Rukn
al-dawla, c. 970. Persian Physician. Author of compendium of medicine, called Hippocratic treatments,
in ten books. Was it written in Persian or in Arabic? It is extant only in Arabic, Kitab al-mu’alaja albuqratiya.
F. Wustenfeld: Arabschen Aerzte (56, 1840).
ALI IBN ABBAS
Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi, that is, the Magian, whichmeans that he, or his father was of the Zoroastrian
faith. Latin name: Ali Abbas or Hall Abbas. Born inAhwaz, southwestern Persia; flourished under thw
Buwayhid Adud al-dawla; died in 994. One of the three greatest physicians of the Eastern Caliphate. He
wrote for Adud aldawla a medical encyclopedia called “the Royal Book” (Kitab al-Maliki, Liber regius,
regalis dispositio; also called Kamil al-sana ‘a al-tibbiya), which is more systematic and consice than
Razi’s Hawi, but more practical than Avicenna’a Qanun, by which it was superseded. The Maliki is
divided into 20 discourses, of which the first halfdeal with theory and the other with the practice of
medicine. the best parts of it are those devoted todietetics and to materia medica. Rudimentary
conception of the capillary system. Interesting clinical observations. Proof of the motions of the womb
during parturition (the child does not come out; itis pushed out).
Wustenfeld: Geschichte der arabischen Aerzte (59, 1840).
AL-HUSAIN IBN IBRAHIM
Al Husain ibn Ibrahim ibn al-Hasan ibn Khurshid al-Tabari al-Natili. Flourished c. 900-91. Translator
from Greek into Arabic. He dedicated, in 990-91, animproved translation of Dioscorides to the Prince
Abu Ali al-Samjuri.
C. Brockelmann: Arabische Litteratur (189, 207).
AL-QUMRI
Abu Masur al-Hasan ibn Nuh al-Qumri. From Qum in Jibal. Flourished probably at Bagdad, about the
end of the tenth century, and the begining of the eleventh. Muslim Physician. Teacher of Avicenna. He
wrote a treatise on medicine, largely based upon al-Razi, called the book of life and death (Kitab Ghina
wa mana’), divided into three parts (internal diseases, external diseases, fevers).
C. Brockelmann: Arabische Litteratur (vol. 1, 239, 1808).
ABU SAHL AL-MASIHI
Abu Sahl Isa ibn Yahya al-Masihi al-Jurjani, i. e.,the Christian, from Jurjan, east of the Caspian Sea;
36
died at the age of fourty in 999-1000. Christian physician writing in Arabic. Teacher of Avicenna. He
wrote an encyclopaedic treatise on medicine in a hundred chapters (al-Kutub al-mi’a fi-l-sana’a altibbiya), which is one of the earliest Arabic works of itskind and may have been in some respects the
model of the Qanun. He wrote a various smaller treatises: on measles, on the plague, on the pulse,
demonstration of God’s wisdom as evidenced in the creation of man, etc.
C. Brockelmann: Arabische Litteratur (vol. 1, 138, 1898).
ABU MANSUR MUWAFFAK
Abu Mansur Muwaffak ibn Ali al-Harawi. Flourished in Herat under the Samanid prince Mansur I ibn
Nuh, who ruled from 961 to 976. Persian pharmacologist. He was apparently the first to think of
compiling a treatise on materia medica in Persian; he travelled extensively in Persia and India to obtain
necessary information. He wrote between 968 and 977, the “Book of the Remedies” (Kitab al-abnyia ‘an
Haqa’iq al-adwiya), which is the oldest pose work in modern Persian. It deals with 585 remedies (of
which 466 are derived from plants, 75 from minerals, 44 from animals), classified into four groups
according to their action. Outline of a general pharmacological theory. Abu mansur distinguished
between sodium carbonate (natrun) and potassium carbonate (qli); he had some knowledge abot
arsenious oxide, cupric oxide, silicic acid, antimony; he knew the toxilogical effects of copper and lead
compounds, the depilatory vertue of quicklime, the composition of plaster of Paris and its surgical use.
E. G. Browne: Arabian Medicine (92, Cambridge, 1921).
AL-TAMIMI
Abu Abdallah Muhammed ibn Ahmed ibn Sa’id al-Tamimial-Muqaddasi (meaning, the native or the
inhabitant of the Holly City). Born in Jerusalen; he moved, c. 970, to Egypt and was still living there in
980. Palastinian physician. He made pharmaceutical experiments and wrote various medical works,
chiefly on materia medica. His main work is a guide(Murshid) on materia medica, which contains
valuable information on plants, minerals, etc. Kitab al-murshid ila jawahir al-aghdhiya wa quwalmufradat; guide toward (the understanding of) the substances of food-stuffs and (of) the simple drugs.
C. Brockelmann: Arabische Litteratur (vol. 1, 237, 1898).
AL-BALADI
Ahmed ibn Mohammed ibn Yahya al-Baladi. Flourished in Egypt under the Wazir Ya’qub ibn Kils, who
died in 990-91. Egyptian physician. Author of a treatise on the hygiene of pregnant women and the
babies (Kitab Tadbir al-habala wal-atfal).
C. Brockelmann: Arabische Litteratur (vol. 1, 237, 1898).
HASDAI IBN SHAPRUT
Alias shaprut, Shafrut, Bashrut, Shaprot. Abu YusufIsaac ibn Izra. Born c. 915 at Jaen, Andalus;
flourished at Cordova at the court of Abd al-RahmanIII; died in 970 or 990 at Cordova. Hispano-Jewish
physician, translator of Greek into Arabic, Patron of science. Physician to the caliph. He discovered a
panacea called al-faruq (the best).
A manuscript of Dioscorides having been presented in 948-49 to Abd al-Rahman III by the emperor
Constantinos VII, Hasdai undertook to translate it with the assistance of the Greek monk Nicholas. This
monk had been sent to Cordova by the emperor upon the caliph’s request, in 951.
He wrote a Hebrew letter to the King of the Khazarsdiscribing Andalus. He was a great patron of jewish
science and it was partly due to his initiative andactivity that the intellectual center of Israel was finally
37
transfered from academies of Babylonia to Spain.
Article by Rabbi Meyer Kayserling in Jewish encyclopaedia, vol. 6, 248, 1904.
ARIB IBN SA’D
Arib ibn Sa’d al-Khatib (the secretary) al-Qurtubi.Flourished at Cordova at the court of Abd al-Rahman
IIi and al-Hakim II, who died in 976. Hispano-Mislim historian and physician. Originally Christian. He
wrote a chronicle of Muslim Spain and Afric some time between 961-976. This chronicle was
extensively used by Ibn al-Idhari (q. v., second half of thirteenth century). He wrote also a treatiseon
gynaecology, hygiene of pregnant women and infants,and on obstetric (Khalq al-janin, Creation of the
embryo, in 964-65), and a calender (Kitab al-anwa’).
C. Brockelmann: Arabische Litteratur (vol. 1, 236, 1898).
ABU-L-QASIM
Latin names: Abulcasis, Albucasis, Alsaharavius. Khalaf ibn Abbas al-Zahrawi, from Zahra, near
Cordova, where he flourished and died c. 1013. The greatest Muslim surgeon. Physician to al-Hakam II
(961 to 976). His great medical encyclopedia in 30 sections, al-Tasrif (Vade-mecum) contains
interesting methods of preparing drugs by sublimation and distillation. but its most important part isthe
surgical, in three books, largely based upon PaulosAegineta. Great importance attached to cauterization
and styptics. Parts of the surgery are devoted to obstetrics and to the surgical treatment of the eyes, ears,
and teeth. This work was illustrated with views of the surgical instruments. It was early translated into
Latin (by Gherardo Cremonese), Provencal and Hebrew. Muslim prejudices against surgery stifled Abul-Qasim’s fame in Islam, but in the Christian worldhis prestigue was soon immense.
Wustenfled: Geschichte der Arabischen Aerschen (p. 85, 1840).
IBN JULJUL
Abu Da’ud Suliman ibn Hasan ibn Juljul. Physician to the Spanish Umayyad Hisham II, Mu’aiyad
billah, caliph from 976 to 1009. Hispano-Muslim physician. He wrote, at Cordova, in 982, a
commentary on Dioscorides, and later a supplement to it, and a history of the physicians and
philosophers of his time in Spain (Ta’rikh al-atibba wal-falasifa), often quoted by Ibn abi Usaibi’a (q.
v., first half of the thirteenth century).
The aim of the commentary was to determine the drugs dealt with by Dioscorides; the supplement was a
list of drugs not mentioned by Dioscorides. As to the origin of these Dioscoridian studies, see my notes
on Hasidai ibn Shaprut. It would seem that Ibn Juljul and others assisted in the translation of Dioscorides
into Arabic.
C. Brockelmann: Arabische Litteratur (t. 1, 237, 1898).
IBN AL-JAZZAR
In Latin: Algizar, AlJazirah. Abu Ja’far Ahmed ibn Ibrahim Ibn Abi Khalid Ibn alJazzar. Flourished in
Qairawan, Tunis, died in 1009, being more than 80 years old. Physician. Pupil of Ishaq al-Isra’ili (q.v.,
first half of the tenth century). Of his many writings, the most important because of its enormous
popularity, was his “Traveller’s Provision” (Zad al-Musafir) which was translated into Latin by
Constantinus Africanus, into Greek by Synesios, andinto Hebrew - the titles of these translations being:
Viaticum pergrinantis; Zedat al-Derachim. It contains remarkable descriptions of smallpox and measles.
He wrote also on the coryza, on the cuases of plague in Egypt, etc.
C. Brockelmann: Arabische Litteratur (vol. 1, 238, 1898).
38
The Time of Al-Biruni
First Half of Eleventh Century
The great leaders were so many - Ibn Yunus, Ibn al-Haitham, Al-Biruni, Ibn Sina, Ali ibn Isa, al-Karkhi,
Ibn Gabirol (all Muslim except the last, who was Jewish) - that, for a moment at least, the historian is
bewildered. Yet, however distinguished all of thosemen, and many others who will be named presently,
two stand out head and shoulders above the others: al-Biruni and Ibn Sina (Avicenna). It was chiefly
because all of them that this period was one of such excellence and distinction. These two men, who by
the way, knew one another, were extremely different. Al-Biruni represents the more adventurous and
critical spirit, Ibn Sina the synthetic spirit, al-Biruni was more of a discoverer, and in that respect he
came nearer to the modern scientific ideal; Ibn Sina was essentially an organizer, an encyclopedist, a
philosopher. Both, even the latter, were primarily men of science, and it would be difficult to choose
between them but the accidental fact that al-Biruni’s life covered more fully the present period and thus
may be said to represent it more completely. Ibn Sina was only 20 at the beginning of the century, and
his life was ultimately cut short in 1037. Al-Biruni’s first important work appeared about 1000 and he
lived until 1048. Thus his time of activity and thefirst half of the eleventh century are not identical
periods, and we are fully justified (more fully so than in almost every short case) in calling it the Time
of al-Biruni.
Muslim Mathematics and astronomy
It is almost like passing from the shade to the open sun and from a sleepy world into one tremendously
active. For the sake of convenience, I divide Muslim mathematicians into three groups: those of the
West, those of Egypt, who occupied, so to speak, anintermediate position, and those of the East. Thisis
also a logical division, for though communications between the eastern and western ends of the Islam
were frequent (there were a number of itinerant scholars to whom the universality of Islam seems to
have been a continual provocation to move on from place to place), it is clear that local influences were
felt more constantly and to greater advantage.
The greatest astronomer and trigonometrician of thetime was Ibn Yunus, who lived in Cairo. Every
thing considered, he was perhaps the greatest Muslim astronomer, and the Fatimid rules of Egypt gave
him magnificent opportunities. Indeed, under the sixth Fatimid, al-Hakim, a sort of academy of science
(Dar al-Hikma) had been established in Cairo, and, had been the case for the academy founded by alMa’mun in Bagdad two centuries earlier, an observatory was an essential part of it. Ibn Yunus made
excellent use of these exceptional facilities to measure more accurately the number of astronomical
39
constants and to compile improved tables named after his patron, the Hakemite tables. He contributed
his share to the development of trigonometry, discovering new solutions of spherical problems and
introducing the first of the prosthapheretical formulas. His colleague in al-Hakim’s academy, Ibn alHaitham, better known as a physicist, was also a great astronomer and mathematician. He made a
curious attempt to measure the height of the atmosphere on the basis of his knowledge and of the length
of twilight. He solved al-Mahani’s equation and theso-called Alhazen’s problem by means of
intersecting conics.
The mathematicians of the East were so numerous, and though they could boast no man comparable in
his branch of learning to Ibn Yunus, their work wasgenerally on a very high level and full of originality.
Kushyar ibn Labban especially interested in trigonometry, he made a deeper study on the tangent
function and compiled new astronomical tables whichwere sooner translated into Persian. He also wrote
on astrology and arithmetic. Ibn al-Husain investigated the classical problems of the Greek geometry
(for example, the duplication of the cube) and tried to solve them by purely geometrical means. Abu-lJud was also a geometer; he made a special study onthe regular heptagon and enneagon and of those
problems which can not be solved by means of ruler and compass alone; he tried to classify equations
with reference to conic sections, he is one of the mathematicians who prepared the work of Omar alKhayyam in the following period. The greatest of them all, al-Karkhi was chiefly an arithmatician and
algebraist. He solved a number of Diophantine problems and invented a series of new one. His work
contains many of the original features, but the most extra-ordinary of these is the systematic neglectof
Hindu numerals. No numerals are used, the names of the numerals being written in full. It is as if alKarkhi had considered the use of Hindu numerals as vulgar and non-scientific. Al-Nasawi wrote a
practical arithmetic in Persian and later translated it into Arabic. He explained the Hindu methods and
applied them to difficult numerical problems; in these computations the sexagesimal fractions
introduced by astronomical measurements were replaced by decimal fractions. Ibn Tahir wrote also
arithmetical book of a practical nature; he showed how to solve the complicated inheritance problems
entailed by the Muslim fondness for juridical niceties. To al-Biruni we owe the best mediaeval account
of Hindu numerals. He composed an astronomical encyclopedia and a general treatise on mathematics ,
astronomy, and astrology. He was deterred neither by formidable computations nor by the most difficult
geometrical problems of his time, those called after him Albirunic problems. He introduced a simplified
method of stereographic projection. As we would expect, the philosophical aspects of mathematics were
more to ibn Sina than the more technical details. We already know that in spite of his encyclopedic
activities Ibn Sina found time to carry on a numberof astronomical observations and to improve the
observational technique.
I named these Eastern mathematicians, as well as possible, in chronological order. This does not,
perhaps, bring out with sufficient clearness the full complexity of their activities. In the first place,
observe that, I did not mention a single astrologer; only one named in this section flourished not in the
East, but in the orthodox Tunis, where there was much less freedom of thought. In the second place, if
we leave out of account the astronomical work, which was determined by practical necessities, we find
that there were two distinct streams of mathematical thought: the one theoretical represented by Ibn alHusain, Abu-l-Jud, and al-Karkhi, the other, more practical, represented by al-Nasawi and Ibn Tahir. AlBiruni and Ibn Sina can not be included in that classification, for they were equally in the most abstruse
and in the most practical questions; they had no contempt for humble means, for there are no small
matters for great minds.
40
Muslim Physics, Chemistry and Technology
Contemporary accounts of Muslim achievements must be started with Ibn al-Haitham, who flourished in
Cairo at the beginning of the century. He was not only the greatest Muslim physicist, but by all means
the greatest of mediaeval times. His researches on geometrical and physiological optics were the most
significant to occur between ancient times and the sixteenth century. His description of the eye and his
explanation of vision were distinct improvements. Muslim scientists had developed a great interest in
the determination of specific gravity. Al-Biruni continued that tradition and measured the density of 18
precious stones and metals with remarkable accuracy. He observed that the speed of light is
incomparably greater than the of sound. Ibn Sina investigated all the fundamental questions of physics
which could be formulated finite. His study of music was especially important and far ahead of the
contemporary Latin work. He described the doubling with octave, the fourth and the fifth, and even with
the third.
A college of Ibn al-Haitham in the Cairo academy, Masawaih al-Mardini, explained the preparation
empyreumatic oils. Ibn Sina intertained original views on chemistry; he did not share the common belief
of Muslim alchemists that the coloring or bronzing of metals affected their substance, he thought thatthe
differences between metals were to deep to permit their transmutation. An important alchemical treatise
was composed in 1034 by al-Kathi.
Muslim or Arabic Medicine
There are so many that I must again divide them into three groups. Those of Spain, those of Egypt, and
those of the East.
Spain:Al-Karmani has already been mentioned. He was at once a mathematician and a surgeon. Ibn alWafid composed a treatise on simple drugs, which ispartly extant in Latin, and a treatise on
Balneography. To these two Muslims may be added theJew, Ibn Janah, who flourished in Saragossa and
wrote there in Arabic, a book on simple remedies.
Egypt:Not less than four great Physician enjoyed the patronage of the Fatimid rulers of Egypt.
Masawaih al-Mardini (Mesue the Younger) compiled a large dispensatory which was immensely
popular in mediaeval Europe. For centuries it remained the standard work on the subject. Ammar was
perhaps the most original oculist of Islam, but hiswork was superseded by that of the Eastern
contemporary, Ali ibn Isa. The surgical part of Ammar’s ophthalmologic treatise is particularly
important. The third of these physicians, Ibn al-Haitham (Alhazen) has already been dealt with many
times; he must be remembered her because of his studies in physiological optics. Ali ibn Ridwan wrote
various commentaries on Greek medicine, of which the best known was one on Galen’s Ars prava; he
also wrote a treatise on hygiene with special reference to Egypt. It should be noted that Masawaih wasa
monophysite Christian; the others were Muslims.
East:The greatest physician of the time and one of the greatest of all times was Ibn Sina (Avicenna).
His enormous medical encyclopedia, the Qanun (Canon), remained the supreme authority, not simply in
Islam but also in Christendom, for some six centuries. It contained a number of original observations,
41
but its hold on the people was chiefly due to its systematic arrangement and its very dogmatism. Ibn
Sina was not as great a physician as Galen, but he had very much the same intellectual qualities and
defects and his ascendancy was largely based upon the same grounds. He had the advantage over Galen
being able to take into account the vast experienceof Muslim physicians.
Ibn al-Taiyib wrote commentaries on Greek medicine.Abu Sa’id Ubaid Allah, of the famous
Bakhtyashu family, wrote treatise on love-sickness and discussed the philosophical terms used by
physicians. Ibn Butlan compiled the so-called Tables of Health, a medical summary, divided into 15
vertical columns; he is perhaps the originator of that typical form of synopsis. Finally Ali ibn Isa (Jesu
Haly) was the author of the most famous ophthalmologistical treatise written in Arabic, it is very
remarkable that not than three of these physicians,that is more than half of them, were Christians living
in Bagdad: Ibn al-Taiyib, Abu Sa’id Ubaid Allah, and Ibn Butlan. This testifies for the faithfulness of
the Christian community of Bagdad and the toleration of the Muslim rulers. It should be added that the
other physicians, i.e., the Muslims, were far more important.
Muslim Mathematics and Astronomy
Muslim Mathematics of the West
AL-KARMANI
Abu Hakam Amr (or Omar) ibn Abd al-Rahman ibn Ahmedibn Ali al-Karmani (that is of Carmona).
Born in Cordova, died in Saragossa. Spanish-Muslim mathematician and surgeon. Disciple of Maslam
ibn Ahmed (q. v., second half of tenth century). Itis he (or else the latter) who introduced the writings of
the Brethren of Purity into Spain.
Suter: Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber (105, 1900).
IBN AL-SAMH
Abu al-Qasim Asbagh ibn Mohammed ibn al-Samh. Flourished at Granada; died May 29, 1035, at the
age of 56. Hispano-Muslim mathematician and astronomer. He wrote treatises on commercial arithmetic
(al-mu’amalat), on two mental calculus (hisab al-hawa’i), on the nature of numbers, two on geometry,
two on astrolabe, its use and construction. His main work seems to have been the compilation of
astronomical tables, according to the Siddhanta method (for which see my notes on Mohammed ibn
Ibrahim al-Fazari second half of eighth century), together with theoretical explanations (c. 1025).
H. Suter: Mathematiker (85, 1900; 168, 1902).
IBN ABI-L-RIJAL
In Latin, Abenragel (also Albohazen, Alboacen, which was more correct, for Abenragel was his father’s
name, rather than his own). Abu-l-Hasan Ali ibn Abi-l-Rijal al-Saibani al-Katib al-Maghribi. Born in
Cordova or else where in Spain or in northern Africa, flourished in Tunis some time about 1016 to 1040,
died after 1040. Muslim astrologer. His main work is the “distinguished book on horoscopes from the
constellations” (al-bari fi ahkam al-nujum). It was translated by Judah ben Moses from Arabicinto
Castilian, then from Castilian into Latin by Aegidius de Tebaldis and Petrus de Regio. He wrote a
physiognomic treatise on Naevi.
H. Suter: Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber (100, 1900; Nachtrage, 172, 1902);
encyclopedia of Islam (vol. 2, 356, 1916).
42
IBN AL-SAFFAR
Abu-l-Qasim Ahmed ibn Abdallah ibn Omar al-Ghafiqi,best known under the name of Ibn al-Saffar,
meaning son of coppersmith. Flourished at Cordova, toward the end of his life he retired in Denia and
died there in 1035. Hispano-Muslim mathematician and astronomer. He wrote a treatise on the astrolabe
and compiled tables according to the Siddhanta method.
H. Suter: Mathematiker (86, 225, 1900; 169, 1902).
Muslim Mathematics of Egypt
IBN YUNUS
Abu Hasan Ali ibn abi Sa’id Abd al-Rahman ibn Ahmedibn Yunus (or Ibn Yunus) al-Sadafi al-Misri.
Died in Cairo, 1009 (not 1008). The date of his birth is unknown, but his father died in 958-59. Perhaps
the greatest Muslim astronomer. A well equipped observatory in Cairo enabled him to prepare improved
astronomical tables. Begun c. 990 by order of the Fatimid caliph al-Aziz (975-996), they were
completed in 1007 under the latter’s son al-Hakim (996-1020) and are called after him the Hakemite
Tables (al-zij al-kabir al-Hakimi). They contain observations of eclipses and conjunctions, old and new,
improved values of astronomical constants (inclination of the ecliptic, 23
o
35‘; longitude of the sun’s
apogee, 86
o
10‘; solar parallax reduced from 3‘ to 2‘; precession, 51.2“ a year, no allusion to trepidation)
and accounts of the geodetic measurements carried on order by al-Ma’mun (q. v., first half of ninth
century.)
His contributions to trigonometry, though less important than those of Abu-l-Wafa; are considerable. He
solved many problems of spherical astronomy by means of orthogonal projections. He introduced the
first of those prosthapheretical formulae which were indispensable before the invention of the
logarithms, namely, the equivalent of
cosαcosβ =1/2 [cos (α − β) + cos (α +β)].
Approximate value of sin 1
o
= 1.8/3.9 sin (9/8)
o
+ 2.16/3.15 sin(15/16)
o
Ibn Yunus’s observatory was a part of Hall of Wisdom (Dar al-hikma, abode of wisdom) founded in
Cairo by the Fatimids. This institution, which lasted from 1005 to the end Fatimid regime (1171), might
be considered the second Muslim academy of science,the first being that founded by al-Ma’mun in
Bagdad almost two centuries earlier.
Suter: Encyclopaedia of Islam (vol. 2, 428, 1918).
IBN AL-HAITHAM
See notes in the physical section, below.
Muslim Mathematics of East
AL-BIRUNI
Abu-Raihan Mohammed ibn Ahmed al-Biruni. Born in Khwarizm (Khiva) in 973 sojourned a
43
considerable time in India; died in 1048, probably at Ghazna in Sijistan (Afghanistan). He was by birth a
Persian and a Shi’ite; his religion was tempered with agonistic tendencies, but his national, anti-Arabic
feelings remained very strong until the end. Traveler, mathematician, philosopher, astronomer,
geographer, encyclopedist. One of the very greatestof Islam, and, all considered, one of the greatestof
all times. His critical spirit, toleration, love oftruth, and intellectual courage were almost without
parallel in mediaeval times. He claimed that the phrase “Allah is omniscient” does not justify ignorance.
He wrote, in Arabic, a number of books on geographical, mathematical, and astronomical subjects. His
main works were: (1) the “Chronology of ancient nations” or “Vestige of the past” (Kitab al-athar albaqiya ani-l-qurun al-khaliya), written in 1000 and dealing chiefly with the calendars and ears of
various peoples; (2) an account on India (Ta’rikh al-Hind) composed in Ghazna c. 1030; (3) an
astronomical encyclopedia, the Mas,udic canon (al-qanon al-Mas’udi fi-l-hai’a wal-nujum), so-called
because it was dedicated in 1030 to the Ghaznawid sultan Mas’ud; (4) a summery on mathematics,
astronomy, and astrology (Al-tafhim li-awa’il sina’at al-tanjim). His description of Brahmanical India
was based upon a deep study of the country and its people. He had been charmed by Hindu philosophy,
especially by the Bhagavadgita. He translated from Sinskrit into Arabic (e. g., two of Varahamihira’s
works, q. v., first half of sixth century), and on the other hand, transmitted Muslim knowledge to the
Hindus.
He gave a clear account (the best mediaeval account) of Hindu numerals (principle of position). Sum a
geometric progression apropos of the chess game; itled to the following number: 16
16
-1 = 18, 446, 744,
073, 709, 551, 916. Trisection of the angles and other problems which can not be solved with ruler and
compass alone (Albirunic problems). Simplified stereographic projection, similar to that first published
by G.B. Nicolosi di Paterno in 1600 (Isis, V, 498).
Accurate determination of latitudes. Determination of longitudes. Geodetic measurements. Al-Biruni
discussed the question whether the earth rotates around its axis or not, without reaching a definite
conclusion.
Investigations on specific gravity. Remarkably accurate determination of the specific density of 18
precious stones and metals. As compared to the speed of sound, that of light is immense. The work of
natural springs and “artesian” wells is explained by the hydrostatic principle of communicating vessels.
Description of monstrosities, including what we call “Siamese” twins.
The Indus valley must be considered as ancient sea basin filled up with alluvions.
H. Suter and E. Wiedemann: Uber al-Biruni (Erlangen, 1920. Quoted above). Carra de Vaux: Penseur
de l’Islam (vol. 2, 1921, passim).
KUSHYAR IBN LABBAN
Abu-l-Hasan Kushayr ibn Labban ibn Bashahri al-Jili(i. e., from Jilan, south of the Caspian Sea).
Flourished c. 971-1029; his main work was probably done about the beginning of the eleventh century.
Persian mathematician and astronomer, writing in Arabic. He seems to have taken an important part in
the elaboration of trigonometry. For example, he continued the investigations of Abu-l-Wafa, the
devoted much space to this in his tables, al-zij al-jami wa-l-baligh (the comprehensive and mature
tables), which were translated into Persian before the end of the century. He wrote also an astrological
introduction and an arithmetic treatise (extant to Hebrew).
H. Suter: Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber (83, 235, 1900; 168, 1902).
IBN AL-HUSAIN
Abu Ja’far Mohammed ibn al-Husain. Flourished not long after al-Khujandi (q. v., second half of the
tenth century). Mathematician. He wrote a memoir onrational right angled triangles and another on the
44
determination of two mean proportionals between twolines by a geometrical method (vs. kinematic
method), i. e., by the use of what the Muslims called “fixed geometry”, al-handasa al-thabit. Solutionof
the equation
x
2
+a = y
2
.
Suter: Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber (80, 1900; Nachtrage, 168, 1902).
ABU-L-JUD
Abu-l-Jud Mohammed ibn al-Lith, contemporary of al-Biruni. Mathematician. Solution of al-Birunic
problems by means of intersecting conics. Regular heptagon and enneagon. Classification of equations
and their reduction to conic sections.
Suter: Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber (79, 1900).
AL-KARKHI
Abu Bakr Mohammed ibn al-Hassan (or Husain) al-Hasib (the calculator) al-Karkhi, meaning of Karkh,
a suburb of Bagdad. Flourished in Bagdad during thevizierate of Abu Ghakib Mohammed ibn Khalaf
Fakhr al-mulk (glory of the realm), who died in 1016; he died himself c. 1019 to 1029. One of the
greatest Muslim mathematicians. His book on arithmetic (the sufficient on calculation, alkafi fi-l-hisab)
is based chiefly of the Greek and Hellenistic knowledge. No numerals of any kind are used, the names of
the numbers being written in full. Casting out of the nines and elevens.
If r < (2a + 1), [(a
2
+ r)] ~ a + r/(2a + 1).
His algebra called (al-fakhri) in honor of the vizier is largely based on Diophantos. Complete solutions
of quadratic equations (with proofs; two roots considered if positive and if not null). Reduction of
equations of the type ax2p + bxp = c to quadratic equations. Addition and subtraction ofradicals.
Summation of series. Solution of Diophantine equations (including 25 problems not found in
Diophantos). Al-Karkhi’s neglect Hindu mathematics was such that it must have been systematic.
H. Suter: Encyclopaedia of Islam (vol. 2, 764, 1925. Very little).
AL-NASAWI
Abu-l-Hasan Ali ibn Ahmed al-Nasawi. From Nasa, Khurasan. Flourished under the Buwayhid sultan
Majd al-dawla, who died in 1029-30, and under his successor. Persian mathematician. He wrote a
practical arithmetic in Persian, before 1030, and later under Majd al-dawla’s successor an Arabic
translation of it, entitled the “Satisfying (or Convincing) on Hindu Calculation” (al-muqni fi-l-hisab al
hindi). He also wrote on Archemedes’s lemnata and Menelaos’s theorem (Kitab al-ishba, satiation). His
arithmetic explains the division of fractions and the extraction of square and cubic roots (square root of
57,342; cubic root of 3, 652, 296) almost in the modern manner. It is remarkable that al-Nasawi replaces
sexagesimal by decimal fractions, e. g.,
Suter: Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber (96, 1900) Uber das Rechenbuch des Ali ben
Ahmed el-Nasawi (Bibliotheca Mathematica, vol. 7, 113-119, 1906).
Muslim Physics, Chemistry and Technology
45
IBN AL-HAITHAM
Latin name: Alhazen. Abu Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Hasan (or al-Husain) ibn al-Haitham. Born c. 965 in
Basra, flourished in egypt under al-Hakim (996 to 10200 died in Cairo in 1039 or soon after. The
greatest Muslim physicist and one of the greatest students of optics of all the times. He was also an
astronomer, a mathematician, a physician, and he wrote commentaries on Aristotle and Galen.
The Latin translation of his main work, the Optics (kitab al-manazir), exerted a great influence upon
Western science (R. Bacon; Kepler). It showed a great progress in the experimental method. Research in
catoptrics: spherical and parabolic mirrors, spherical aberration; in dioptrics: the ratio between theangle
and incidence and refraction does not remain constant; magnifying power of a lens. study of atmospheric
refraction. The twilight only ceases or begins whenthe sun is 19
o
below the horizon; attempt to measure
the height of the atmosphere on that basis. Better description of the eye, and better understanding of
vision, though ibn al-haitham considered the lens as the sensitive part; the rays originate in the object
seen, not in the eye. Attempt to explain binocular vision. Correct explanation of the apparent increase in
the size the sun and the moon when near the horizon. earliest use of the camera obscura.
The catoptrics contain the following problem, knownas Alhazen’s problem: from two points of the
plane of a circle to draw lines meeting at point ofthe circumference and making equal angles with the
normal at that point. It leads to an equation of the fourth degree. Alhazen solved it by the aid of an
hyberpola intersecting a circle. He also solved theso-called al-Mahani’s (cubic) equation (q. v., second
half of the ninth century) in a similar (Archimedian) manner.
Suter: Die Mathematiker und Astronomen der Araber (91-95, Nachtrage, 169, 1902).
AL-KATHI
Abu-l-Hakim Mohammed ibn Abd al-Malik al-Salihi al-Khwarizmi al-Kathi. Flourished in Bagdad c.
1034. Muslim Chemist, he wrote, in 1034, a treatiseon alchemy entitled “Essence of the Art and Aid to
the Workers” (Ain al-san’a wa awn-al-sana’a), strikingly similar in some respects to the “Summa
perfectionis magisterii” of the Latin Geber (for which see my notes on Jabir, second half of eighth
century).
H. E. Stapleton and R. F. Azo: Alchemical Equipments in the Eleventh century (Memories of Asiatic
Society of Bengal, vol. 1, 47-70, 1 pl., Calcutta, 1905. Containing Arabic text, an analysis of it, and an
introduction; very important).
Muslim (or Arabic) Medicine
Arabic-Writing physicians of the West
AL-KARMANI
See notes in mathematical section
IBN AL-WAFID
Latin name: Abenguefit. Abu-l- Mutarrif abd al-Rahman ibn Mohammed ibn Abd al-Karim ibn Yahya
ibn al-Wafid al-Lakhmi. From Toledo, where he flourished; born 997, died c. 1074. Hispano-Muslim
46
physician, Pharmacologist. His main work, on simpledrugs (Kitab al-adwaiya al-mufrada), based on
Galen and Discorides and also on personal investigations, is partly extant in a Latin translation. He
preferred to use dietetic measures, and, if drugs were needed, to use the simplest ones. He advised a
method of investigating the action of the drugs. Healso wrote a balneotherapy.
C. Brocklmann: Arabischen Litteratur (vol. 1, 485, 1898. Two Arabic manuscripts mentioned).
Arabic-Writing physicians of Egypt
MASAWIAH AL-MARDINI
Mesue the Younger. Masawaih al-Mardini, from Mardinin Upper Mesopotamia. Flourished in Bagdad,
later at the court of the Fatimid caliph al-Hakim in Egypt, where he died in 1015 at the age of ninety.
Physician. Jacobite Christian. He wrote book on purgatives and emetics (De medicins laxativis) and on
the complete pharmacopoeia in 12 parts called the Antidotarium sive Grabadin medicamentorum, based
on Muslim knowledge. The last-named work was immensely popular. It remained for centuries the
standard text-book of pharmacy in the West, and Mesue was called “pharmacopoeorum evabgelista”.
Distillation of empyreumatic oils.
There is still a third Mesue (q. v., first half of thirteenth century), author of a treatise on surgery.
Neuburger: Geschichte der Medizin (vol. 2, 226-227,1911).
AMMAR
Latin name: Canamusali. Abu-l-Qasim Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili. From Mawsil in Iraq; flourished in
Egypt in the reign of al-Hakim, who ruled from 996-1020. Physician. The most original of Muslim
oculists, His work was eclipsed by that of his contemporary Ali ibn Isa, which was more comprehensive.
His summary on the treatment of the eye (Kitab al-muntakhab fi ilaz al-ain) contains many clear
descriptions of diseases and treatments, arranged in logical order. The surgical part is especially
important.
E. Mittwoch: Encyclopaedia of Islam (vol. 1, 332, 1910).
IBN AL-HAITHAM
See notes in physical section, above.
ALI IBN RIDWAN
Abu-l-Hasan Ali ibn Radwan ibn Ali ibn Ja’far al-Misri. Born in Jiza near Cairo, c. 998. Flourished in
Cairo and died there in 1061 or in 1067. Astrologer. physician. The author of many medical writings of
which the most popular was his commentary on Galen’a Ars prava, which was translated by Gerardo
Cremonese. I may still quote his treatise on hygiene with special reference to Egypt (fi daf mudar alabdan bi-ard Misr). He wrote various other commentaries on Hippoctates and Galen and on Ptolemy’s
astrological books.
C. Brocklmann: Arabischen Litteratur (vol. 1, 484, 1898).
Arabic-Writing physicians of the East
47
IBN SINA
Abu Ali al-Hassan ibn Abdallah ibn Sina. Hebrew, Aven Sina; Latin, Avicenna. Born in 980 at Afshana,
near Bukhara, died in Hamadhan, 1037. Encyclopaedist, philosopher, physician, mathematician,
astronomer. The most famous scientist of Islam and one of the most famous of all races, places, and
times; one may say that his thought represents the climax of mediaeval philosophy. He wrote a many
great treatises in prose and verse; most of them inArabic, a few in Persian. His philosophical
encyclopedia (Kitab al-shifa, sanatio) implies the following classification: theoreticalknowledge
(subdivided, with regard to increasing abstraction,into physics, mathematics, and metaphysics),
practical knowledge (ethics, economy, politics). His philosophy roughly represents the Aristotelian
tradition as modified by Neoplatonic influences andMuslim theology. Among his many other
philosophical works, I must still quote a treatise on logic, Kitab al-isharat wal-tanbihat(The Book of
Signs and Adonitions). As ibn Sina expressed his views on almost any subject very clearly, very
forcible, and generally more than once, his thoughtis, or at any rate can be, known with great accuracy.
His most important medical works are the Qanun (Canon) and a treatise on cardiac drugs (hitherto
unpublished). The Qanun fi-l-tibbis an immense encyclopedia of medicine (of about amillion words), a
codification of the whole ancient and Muslim knowledge. Being similar in many respects to Galen, Ibn
Sina elaborated to a degree the Galenic classifications (for example, he distinguished 15 qualities of
pain). Because of its formal perfection as well as its intrinsic value, the Qanunsuperseded Razi’s Hawi,
Ali ibn Abbas’s Maliki, and even works of Galen, and remained supreme forsix centuries. However the
very success of Ibn Sina as an encyclopedist causedhis original observations to be correspondingly
depreciated. Yet the Qanuncontains many examples of good observation - distinction of mediastinitis
from pleurisy; contagious nature of phthitis; distribution of diseases by soil and water; careful
description of skin troubles, of sexual diseases; and supervisions; of nervous ailments (including love
sickness); many psychological and pathological facts clearly analyzed if badly explained.
Ibn Sina’s interest in mathematics was philosophical rather than technical and such as we would expect
in a late Neoplatonist. He explained the casting out of nines and its application to the verification of
square and cubes. Many of his writings were devotedto mathematical and astronomical subjects. He
composed a translation on Euclid. He made astronomical observations, and devised a contrivance the
purpose of which was similar to that of the vernier, that is, to increase the precision of instrumental
readings.
He made a profound study of various physical questions - motion, contact, force, vacuum, infinity, light,
and heat. He observed that if the perception of light is due to the emission of some sort of particlesby
the luminous source, and speed of light must be finite. He made investigations on specific gravity.
He did not believe the possibility of chemical transmutation, because in his opinion the differences of
the metals were not superficial, but much deeper; coloring or bronzing the metals does not affect their
essence. It should be noted that these views were radically opposed to those which were then generally
accepted.
Ibn Sina’s treatise on minerals was the main sourceof the geological ideas of the Christian
encyclopedist of the thirteenth century.
Ibn Sina wrote an autobiography which was completedby his favorite disciple al-Juzajani.
His triumph was too complete; it discouraged original investigations and sterilized intellectual life.Like
Aristotle and Vergil, Avicenna was considered by the people of later times as a magician.
C. Brocklmann: Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur(vol. 1, 452-458, 1898. With list of 99 works).
IBN AL-TAIYIB
Abu-l-Faraj Abdallah Ibn al-Taiyib al-Iraqi. Latin name : Abulpharagius Abdalla Benattibus. Died in
48
1043-44. Nestorian physician. Secertary to Elias I,Nestorian Catholics from 1028 to 1049. Physician at
the Adudite hospital in Bagdad. He had many commentaries on Greek medicine, and original memories
on various medical topics, also a translation of the pseudo-Aristotelian De plantis, with additional
excerpts from ancient literature.
From Arabic translation of the Diatessaron ascribedto him.
Brocklmann: Arabischen Litteratur (vol. 1, 482, 1898).
ABU SA’ID UBAID ALLAH
Abu Sa’id Ubaid Allah ibn Bakhtyashu. Flourished inMaiya-fariqin, Jazirah; friend of Ibn Butlan; died
in 1058. Physician. The last and possibly the greatest representative of the Bukhtyashu, a syrian family
of physicians which emigrated from Junsishapur to Bagdad in 765. His main works are the Reminder of
the Homestayer, dealing with the philosophical terms used in medicine, and a treatise on lovesickness.
C. Brocklmann: Encyclopaedia of Islam (t. 1, 601, 1911).
IBN BUTLAN
Abu-l-Hasan al-Mukhtar ibn al-Hasan ibn Abdun ibn Sa’dun ibn Butlan. Latin name: Elluchasem
Elimither. Flourished in Bagdad; died, probably in Antioch, in or soon after 1063. Christian physician.
He wrote synoptic tables of hygiene, dietetics, domestic medicine, called the Tables of Health. He
probably originated that form of synopsis, which was developed by ibn Jazla (q. v., second half of
eleventh century). Medical polemic with Ali ibn Ridwan.
C. Brocklmann: Arabischen Litteratur (vol. 1, 483, 1898).
ALI IBN ISA
Ali ibn Isa or Jesu Haly. flourished in Bagdad in the first half of the eleventh century. He is said to have
been a christian. The most Famous Arabic oculist. His “Manual” in three books, Tadhkirat al-kahhalin,
is the oldest Arabic work on ophthalmology of whichthe original text is completely extant. It is based
partly on ancient knowledge, partly on personal experience. It is at once very detailed and very
comprehensive. The first book deals with the anatomy and physiology of the eye; the second with the
diseases externally visible; the third with hidden diseases, dietetics, and general medicine from the
oculistic standpoint; 130 eye diseases are carefully described; 143 drugs characterized.
J. Hirschberg: Die arabischen Lehrbucher der Augenheilkunde (Abhd. der preuss. Ak. der Wiss
49
The Time of Omar Khayyam
(Second Half Of Eleventh Century)
The most original creations of this time were made in the field of mathematics by Muslims, and the most
original genius among those to whom we owe these creations was the Persian Omar Khayyam. It is thus
very appropriate to call this time the Time of OmarKhayyam, as Omar is already very well known to a
large number of readers. It is probable that his name is more familiar to them than that of any other
Muslim scientist. It will thus be relatively easy to remember the title, and I trust that this remembrance
will reach to some extent the contents of the following pages. The time of Omar Khayyam was the end
of the golden age of Muslim science.
A new Muslim sect, that of the Assassins, an off-shoot of the Ismailiya movement, originated in Cairo
about 1080.
They took possession of the fortress of Alamut, which remained their main stronghold for a century and
a half. Alamut seems to have been also a center of learning.
The Muslim philosopher who has obtained the largestfollowing in the West, in fact the only one who
has become at all popular, is the persian poet and sufi Omar Khayyam. On the other hand, one of
Omar’s contemporaries, al-Ghazzali, was the greatest theologian of Islam. He might be compared to
Thomas Aquinas, to whom he was in many ways superior. Al-Ghazzali was also a Persian and spent part
of his life in Omar’s native place, Nishabur. WhileOmar Khayyam is the most popular fingure of
mediaeval times, al-Ghazzali is probably the noblest.
Muslim Mathematics and Astronomy
Important astronomical work was done at Cordova. Ibn Said, aided by other Muslim and Jewish
astronomers, made a number of observations. These observations were used by al-Zarqaili (Arzachel),
for the compilation of new tables, the so-called Toledan tables, which obtained considerable authorityin
western Europe. Al-Zarqaili invented a new kind of astrolabe and proved the movement of the solar
apogee; unfortunately, he confirmed the erroneous theory of the “trepidation” of the equinoxes. His
tables were preceded, as usual, by an elaborate trigonometrical introduction.
The philosopher al-Ghazzali wrote a treatise on themotion and nature of stars and an astronomical
50
summary; he had some knowledge of magic squares. The Bagdadite Muhammad ibn Àbd al-Baqí wrote
a commentary on the tenth book of Euclid.
The activity of Muslim geographers, which had been so intense during the ninth and tenth centuries,
abated during the present century. For the second half of this century two men will be recorded, one in
the West and the other in the East. The western one, al-Bakri, is of special importance, become the roadbook which the compiled in the traditional manner is the oldest one of its kind due to a Spaniard. He
also compiled a dictionary of ancient (i.e., Arabian) geography. The Eastern one is also a very arresting
personality. Nasir-I-Khusraw was an Ismaili missionary who, starting from Egypt, traveled extensively
in the Near East and as far east as Persia. He wrote in Persia an account of his travels, which is equally
valuable from the geographical and from the historical point of view.
The contributions of Islam may seem small, but theywere still of a very high quality.
In spite of Anselm, Psellos, and Constantine, in spite of the Chanson de Roland, in spite of Alfasi, Rashi,
and Nathan, Islam was still at the vanguard of humanity. There was nowhere else in the world, in those
days, a philosopher who could at all compare with al-Ghazzali, neither an astronomer like al-Zarqali,
neither a mathematician like Omar Khayyam. These men were to towering far above their
contemporaries.
If we proceed to examine more carefully the intellectual condition of Islam, we discover, in the first
place, that some of the most important contributions were due to Persians; this was not novelty, but what
is more starting, they were written in Persian.
Al-Ghazzali was the only Persian who wrote in Arabic; al-Hasan ibn al-Sabbah, Omar Khayyam, NasirI-Khusraw, Zarrin Dast, Nidham al-Mulk, and Asadi wrote in Persian.
The city of the caliphs gave us still a number of scientists but none of great distinction - Muhammad ibn
Àbd al-Baqí, Ibn Jazla (of Christian origin), Sa’ídibn hibat Allah, al-Khatíb al-Baghdadí, and alMawardí. The only center of intellectual progress in Islam was Spain, but the heyday of Cordova was
already over. Indeed, of the seven scientists and scholars who make us think of the Muslim Spain of
those days with gratitude, only one can be connected with Cordova, the geographer al-Bakrí.
The greatest of them all, al-Zarqali, flourished inToledo, and so did the original historian Ibn Sa’íd.
Yusuf al-Mutamin lived in Saragossa; Abu ‘Umar ibn Hajjaj in Seville. Ibn Sída, was born in Murcia
and died in Denia.
But the development of astronomy by al-Zarqal and of algebra by Omar Khayyam were definite steps
forward.
A great orientalist went so far as to say : “The fourth century is the turning-point in the history ofthe
spirit of Islam”.
MUSLIM MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY
AL-ZARQALI
In Latin : Arzachel. Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yahya al-Naqqash, the engraver. Better known as Ibn alZarqali. From Cordova, lived from c.1029 to c.1080.Astronomer. The best observer of his time
(observations dated 1061, 1080).
He invented an improved astrolabe called safiham (saphaea Arzachelis); his description of it was
translated into Latin, Hebrew, and many vernaculars. He was the first to prove explicitly the motion of
the solar apogee with reference to the stars; according to his measurements it amounted to 12.04” per
51
year (the real value being 11.8”).
On the other hand, comparing his observation of theobliquity of the ecliptic with previous ones, he
concluded that it oscillated between 23o 33’ and 23o 53’, thus reenforcing the erroneous belief in the
“trepidation” of the equinoxes. He edited the so-called Toledan Tables, planetary tables based upon the
observations made by him and probably other Muslim and Jewish astronomers in Toledo (notably Ibn
Sa’íd).
These tables were translated into Latin by GherardoCremonese and enjoyed much popularity. The
trigonometrical introduction (Canones sive regulae tabularum astronomiae) was al- Zarqali’s own
work; it explains the construction of the trigonometrical tables.
YUSUF AL-MUTAMIN
Of the tribe of the Banu Hud; king of Saragossa from 1081 to 1085. His father, Ahmed al-Muqtadir
Billah, king from 1046 to 1081, was also a student and a patron of students. Hispano-Muslim
mathematician and patron of science.
He wrote a mathematical treatise, Istikmal(Bringing to perfection), of which it was said that it should be
studied together with Euclid, the Almagest, and the “middle books.”p
No copy of Yusuf’s treatise is known; it is strangethat a work believed to be so important and written by
a king should be lost.
Stanley Lane Poole: Mohammedan Dynasties(26,1893)
H.Suter: Mathematiker(108,1900).
OMAR KHAYYAM
Abu-l-Fath ‘Umar ibn Ibrahím al-khayyamí - the tentmaker - Ghiyath al-dín. Born in or near Níshabur c.
1038 to 1048, died there in 1123-24.
Persian mathematician, astronomer, and poet. One ofthe greatest mathematicians of mediaeval times.
His Algebracontains geometric and algebraic solutions of equations of the second degree; an admirable
classification of equations, including the cubic; asystematic attempt to solve them all, and partial
geometric solutions of most of them (he did not consider negative roots and his failure to use both
branches or halves of a conic caused him to miss sometimes one of the positive roots). His classification
of equations is very different from our own; it is based on the complexity of the equations (the number
of different terms which they include).
Of course the higher the degree of an equation the more different terms, or combinations of terms, it can
contain. Thus Omar recognizes 13 different forms ofcubic equation. (The modern classification based
primarily upon the degree dates only from the end of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth
century).
Binomial development when the exponent is a positive integer. Study of the postulates and generalities
of Euclid.
In 1074-75 the saljuq sultan Malikshah, Jalal al-dín, called him to the new observatory of Ray (or
Níshabur, or Isfahan?) to reform the old Persian calendar:
(30x12)d.+5d.=365 d. The latter had been temporarily replaced by the Muslim calendar after the
conquest. Omar’s calendar was called al-ta’rikh al-Jalal.
Its era was the 10
th
Ramadan 471=16 March 1079. There are many interpretations of Omar’s reform and
to each corresponds a certain degree of accuracy, but at any rate, Omar’s calendar was very accurate,
probably more so than the Gregorian calendar.
52
The correct interpretation is probably one of the three following, the second being the most probable of
them. I quote for each, the authority, then the gist of the change, and finally the resulting error:
According to al-Shirazi (d.1449), 15 intercalary days in 62 years; error, 1 day in about 3,770 years.
Moden interpretation, 8 intercalary days in 33 years; error, 1 day in about 5,000 years.
(The Gregorian calendar leads to an error of 1 day in 3,330 years).
Methods for the determination of specific gravity.
It is impossible not to mention the Ruba’iyat(quatrains) of Omar Khayyam, which have become,
especially since 159 (when Edward Fitzgerald published the first instalment of his English paraphrase),
one of the most popular classics of the world literature. Omar Khayyam was probably not a sufi, but
rather an agnostic.
Comparisons of his thought with that of Lucretius and that of Voltaire are suggestive but indaequate.
MUHAMMAD IBN’ ABD AL-BAQI
Abu Bakr(?) Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Baghdadi. Flourished c. 1100.
Possibly the author of a commentary on the tenth book of Euclid, which was very popular because of its
numerical applications. It is entitled “Liber judeisuper decimum Euclidis” in the translation by
Gherardo Cremonese.
MUSLIM MEDICINE
IBN JAZIA
Abu ‘ali Yahya ibn Isa Ibn Jazla. Latin forms: Bengesla, Buhahylyha, Byngezla, etc.
Flourished in Bagdad, died in 1100. Christian physician, who embraced Islam in 1074. His most
important work is a medical synopsis, wherein 44 tables of two pages each contain the description and
outline the treatment of 352 diseases (8 in each table); it was probably modeled upon similar work of Ibn
Butlan (q .v; first half of eleventh century) and is called “Tables of the Bodies with regard to their
constitutions” (Taqwim al-abdan fi tadbir al-insa; dispositio corporum de constitutions hominis). He
wrote for al-Muqtadi (caliph from 1075 to 1094) an alphabetical list of simple and compound medicines
called “The Pathway of Explanation as to that whichMan Uses” (Minhaj al-bayan fi ma yasta ‘miluhu
al-insan; methodica dispositio eorum, quibus homo uti solet).
SA’ID IBN HIBAT ALLAH
Abu-I-Hassan Sa’id ibn Hibat Allah ibn al-Hasan. Flourished in Bagded under al-Muqtadi, caliph from
1075 to 1094, died in 1101-2. Physician and philosopher.
Author of a synopsis of medicine, Al-mughni fi tadbir al-amrad wa ma ‘rifat al-‘ilal wal-a’rad
(Sufficiens de cura morborum et eognitione causarumet symptomarum) and of a treatise on physiology
and psychology called “Discourse on the creation ofMan”, Maqala fi khalq al-insan(De constitutione
hominis), dealing with such subjects as reproduction, gestation, parturition, growth, decay, survival of
the soul, etc.
ZARRIN DAST
53
Abu Ruh Muhammad ibn Mansur ibn abi ‘Abdallah ibn Mansur al-Jamani (or al-Jurjani). Zarrin Dast
means the Golden Hand, a good name for an eye surgeon.
Flourished under the Saljuq sultan Abu-l-Fath Malikshah ibn Muhammad, ruling from 1072-73 to 1092-93. Persian oculist. He completed in 1087-88, a very comprehensive and very remarkable treatise on
ophthalmology entitled “The Light of the Eyes” (Nur al-ayun) (in Persian).
Hirschberg: Geschichte der Augenheilkunde bei den Arabern(57 sq., Leipzig, 1905).
Adolf Fonahn: Quellenkunde der persischen Medizin(38-41, 1910. Includes summary of the treatise,
based upon Hirschberg).
Timeline of Islamic Scientists (700-1400)
This chart depicts the lifes of key Islamic Scientists and related writers, from the 8
th
to the end of
the 13
th
century. By placing each writer in a historical context, this will help us understand the
influences and borrowing of ideas.
701 (died) - Khalid Ibn Yazeed - Alchemy
721 - Jabir Ibn Haiyan (Geber) - (Great Muslim Alchemist)
740 - Al-Asmai - (Zoology, Botany, AnimalHusbandry)
780 - Al-Khwarizmi (Algorizm) - (Mathematics, Astronomy)
787 - Al Balkhi, Ja’Far Ibn Muhammas (Albumasar) - Astronomy, Fortune-telling
796 (died) - Al-Fazari,Ibrahim Ibn Habeeb - Astronomy, Translation
800 - Ibn Ishaq Al-Kindi - (Alkindus) - (Philosophy, Physics, Optics)
808 - Hunain Ibn Is’haq - Medicine, Translator
815 - Al-Dinawari, Abu-Hanifa Ahmed Ibn Dawood - Mathematics, Linguistics
836 - Thabit Ibn Qurrah (Thebit) - (Astronomy, Mechanics)
838 - Ali Ibn Rabban Al-Tabari - (Medicine, Mathematics)
852 - Al Battani ABU abdillah (Albategni) - Mathematics, Astronomy, Engineering
54
857 - Ibn MasawaihYou’hanna - Medicine
858 - Al-Battani (Albategnius) - (Astronomy, mathematics)
860 - Al-Farghani (Al-Fraganus) - (Astronomy,Civil Engineering)
884 - Al-Razi (Rhazes) - (Medicine,Ophthalmology, Chemistry)
870 - Al-Farabi (Al-Pharabius) - (Sociology, Logic, Science, Music)
900 - (died) - Abu Hamed Al-ustrulabi - Astronomy
903 - Al-Sufi (Azophi - ( Astronomy)
908 - Thabit Ibn Qurrah - Medicine, Engineering
912 (died) - Al-Tamimi Muhammad Ibn Amyal (Attmimi) - Alchemy
923 (died) - Al-Nirizi, AlFadl Ibn Ahmed (wronge Altibrizi) - Mathematics, Astronomy
930 - Ibn Miskawayh, Ahmed Abuali - Medicine, Alchemy
932 - Ahmed Al-Tabari - Medicine
936 - Abu Al-Qasim Al-Zahravi (Albucasis) - (Surgery, Medicine)
940 - Muhammad Al-Buzjani - (Mathematics,Astronomy, Geometry)
950 - Al Majrett’ti Abu-alQasim - Astronomy, Alchemy, Mathematics
960 (died) - Ibn Wahshiyh, Abu Baker - Alchemy, Botany
965 - Ibn Al-Haitham (Alhazen) - Physics,Optics, Mathematics)
973 - Abu Raihan Al-Biruni - (Astronomy, Mathematics)
976 - Ibn Abil Ashath - Medicine
980 - Ibn Sina (Avicenna) - (Medicine, Philosophy, Mathematics)
983 - Ikhwan A-Safa (Assafa) - (Group of Muslim Scientists)
1019 - Al-Hasib Alkarji - Mathematics
1029 - Al-Zarqali (Arzachel) - Astronomy (Invented Astrolabe)
55
1044 - Omar Al-Khayyam - (Mathematics, Poetry)
1060 - (died) Ali Ibn Ridwan Abu’Hassan Ali - Medicine
1077 - Ibn Abi-Sadia Abul Qasim - Medicine
1090 - Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) - Surgery, Medicine
1095 - Ibn Bajah, Mohammed Ibn Yahya
1097 - Ibn Al-Baitar Diauddin (Bitar) - Botany, Medicine, Pharmacology
1099 - Al-Idrisi (Dreses) - Geography, World Map (First Globe)
1091 - Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) - ( Surgery, Medicine)
1095 - Ibn Bajah, Mohammad Ibn Yahya (Avenpace)- Philosophy, Medicine
1099 - Al-Idrisi (Dreses) - (Geography -World Map, First Globe)
1100 - Ibn Tufayl Al-Qaysi - Philosophy, Medicine
1120 - (died) - Al-Tuhra-ee, Al-Husain Ibn Ali - Alchemy, Poem
1128 - Ibn Rushd (Averroe’s) - Philosophy, Medicine
1135 - Ibn Maymun, Musa (Maimonides) - Medicine, Philosphy
1140 - Al-Badee Al-Ustralabi - Astronomy,Mathematics
1155 (died) - Abdel-al Rahman AlKhazin - Astronomy
1162 - Al Baghdadi, Abdellateef Muwaffaq - Medicine, Geography
1165 - Ibn A-Rumiyyah Abul’Abbas (Annabati) - Botany
1173 - Rasheed AlDeen Al-Suri - Botany
1184 - Al-Tifashi, Shihabud-Deen (Attifashi) - Metallurgy, Stones
1201 - Nasir Al-Din Al-Tusi - (Astronomy,Non-Euclidean Geometry)
1203 - Ibn Abi-Usaibi’ah, Muwaffaq Al-Din - Medicine
1204 (died) - Al-Bitruji (Alpetragius) - (Astronomy)
56
1213 - Ibn Al-Nafis Damishqui - (Anatomy)
1236 - Kutb Aldeen Al-Shirazi - Astronomy, Geography
1248 (died) - Ibn Al-Baitar - ( Pharmacy,Botany)
1258 - Ibn Al-Banna (Al Murrakishi), Azdi - Medicine, Mathematics
1262 (died) - Al-Hassan Al-Murarakishi - Mathematics, Astronomy, Geography
1273 - Al-Fida (Abdulfeda) - ( Astronomy,Geography)
1306 - Ibn Al-Shater Al Dimashqi - Astronomy, Mathematics
1320 (died) - Al Farisi Kamalud-deen Abul-Hassan - Astronomy, Physics
1341 (died) - Al-Jildaki, Muhammad Ibn Aidamer - Alchemy
1351 - Ibn Al-Majdi, Abu Abbas Ibn Tanbugha - Mathematics, Astronomy
1359 - Ibn Al-Magdi,Shihab-Udden Ibn Tanbugha - Mathematic, Astronomy
History of Islamic Science
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